Archaeological records show that the horticulturists of the
Nile had settled in the long and narrow valley of this river about seven
millennia ago. Herodotus called Egypt "the gift of the Nile", for without it,
the place would be a sandy desert. The Nile flows northward for nearly 6.5
thousands km from central mountainous Africa to the Mediterranean Sea. When the
season of rains had been coming to central Africa, the Nile had overflowed its
banks and deposited a fertile layer of soil, which could support a numerous
gardening population.
The early prehistoric dwellers on the Nile inhabited the terraces or plateaus
left by the river as it cut its bed. The remains of their tools and implements
show their gradual development from hunters and gatherers to settled gardeners.
Evidence of organized settlements has been found mainly in their cemeteries. The
artifacts, produced during that time, were put into the grave with the body for
the use of the spirit in the next life, thus preserving a great quantity of such
personal goods as pottery, tools, and weapons. The pottery was often decorated
with painting that reflects the life of the time. Images of birds and animals
common to the land bordering the Nile abound, and from the latter part of the
prehistoric (pre-dynastic) period come elaborate depictions of many oared-boats.
At the beginning, most of their implements, the gardeners of the Nile chipped
from stone; later, they more often used copper for beads and simple tools. They
used cosmetic palettes (made of stone) for grinding eye paint, and carved small
sculptures and figurines from ivory or modeled them in clay. Gold, copper,
stone, and other natural resources were abundant along the riverbed. Within two
millennia, the Nile gardeners learned how to control the river and they had
built some irrigation systems.
They were tribal and locally minded, but their wealth was growing and capturing
the imagination of the neighboring pastoralists. At about the 31st
century BC, the Semitic nomadic tribes from the mountainous region of
present-day Syria and Lebanon conquered the Nile delta, and then expanded south
into Nubia and north as far as Syria.
The history of ancient Egypt is usually divided into three large (half of a
millennium) periods of stable ruling and corresponding small (a couple
centuries) transitional periods of civil wars and following nomadic invasions
(the Egyptian Dark Ages – when the changes of the upper class and its language
occurred). The Old Kingdom or Pyramid Age continued from 2686 to 2181 BC, the
Middle Kingdom (2040-1786 BC), and the New Kingdom (1570-1085 BC).
The Egyptian State building followed the pattern and practice of the
Mesopotamians but in a slower pace. The slower development of the Egyptians was
based on the geography of the country, which had been united by the Nile and, at
the same time, semi-isolated from outside cultural influences by the vast
deserts. This semi-isolation fostered a slower and more continuous artistic and
language patterns, because the new waves of the nomadic invasions (and
corresponding changes of the upper class and its language) rarely reached Egypt.
Egyptian has a longer recorded history than any other language, for nearly five
millennia. It is the only member of the Hamitic linguistic family, which include
Old Egyptian, Middle Egyptian, Late Egyptian, Popular Egyptian and Coptic. Words
in Old Egyptian, as in following Egyptian languages, tend to be formed from
roots typically consisting of three consonants. The stable meaning of the root
is altered by different vowel patterns. However, forms of verbs and the Old
Egyptian syntax vary markedly from forms of verbs and syntax of the following
Egyptian languages. Spoken and literary Old Egyptian differs considerably. Most
of the formal inscriptions on tombs, temples, pillars, and statues were written
in Old Egyptian, and approximations of living speech are preserved only in
practical documents such as business records and letters.
Based on the existing literary evidence the Hamitic linguistic family has been
divided into five eras. Old Egyptian (the 30th through the 22nd
centuries BC) was the written language of the Early Dynastic Period through the
Old Kingdom (0-6th Dynasties). The classical Egyptian literary
language is believed to reflect the speech of around the 22nd century
BC. Middle Egyptian was dominant from the 20th through the 13th
centuries BC. Late Egyptian began to develop during the 2nd Dark Age
and came into general use in the New Kingdom (the 15th through the 10th
centuries BC). Middle Egyptian had been used by the 18th Dynasty (the
first dynasty after the 2nd Dark Age) and was still used in
monumental inscriptions in the 4th century BC (under the Persians).
The speech of the 15th century BC shows markedly grammatical and
phonetic changes from the earlier language. In the 7th century BC,
during the Late Period, Popular (Demotic) Egyptian became the accepted
literary language and remained so through the Persian, Greek, and Roman
domination of Egypt into the 4th century AD.
Popular Egyptian was written with a distinctive cursive script and represented
the speech of around the 7th century BC. The last era of the Egyptian
language was Coptic, which was initially in use concurrently with Popular
Egyptian. It was written in Greek characters, with additional seven signs from
Popular Egyptian for sounds not common to Greek. Beginning with the 3rd
century AD, it was used for Christian literature. Between the 8th and
the 14th centuries, the Arabic language gradually supplanted Coptic.
The latter is still in use today as the liturgical language of the Christian
Coptic Church.
The Egyptians developed three forms of writing: hieroglyphics, and two
cursive scripts (hieratic, and popular). Hieroglyphic
writing is pictorial writing, used for formal inscriptions. Hieratic
cursive was used before Egypt’s conquest by the Semitic Assyrians, c. 650 BC,
and popular cursive was used between 650 BC – 450 AD. All three used to
use ideograms, syllables (consonants only), single letters, and determinatives
(interpretive aids for signs having more than one meaning). The writing, as in
the Semitic linguistic family, did not represent vowels, and thus (except for
Coptic) scholars could trace the phonetic evolution of the language only through
consonants. After the popular cursive, Byzantine Greek was in use. The latter
was supplanted by Arabic script.
Through each epoch, we will follow from the "hard" evidence of rocks and metals
to the "soft" evidence of Egyptian literature, which is characterized by a wide
diversity of types and subject matter. From early times, the Egyptians used to
use such literary devices as simile, metaphor, alliteration, and punning.
The scientific literature of ancient Egypt includes legal, administrative, and
economic texts; hymns to the gods; mythological and magical texts; instructive
literature, known as ‘wisdom texts’; extensive collections of mortuary texts;
and scientific treatises, including mathematical and medical texts. The popular
literature includes stories, poems, biographical and historical texts, and
private documents such as letters. Some authors of several compositions dating
from the Old and Middle Kingdoms were revered by the later generations of the
Egyptians. However, most of these authors came from the educated upper class of
government officials, and what they wrote was meant to be read by educated
bureaucrats. Indeed, many school-texts of the Middle Kingdom were composed as
political propaganda, to teach (or better say, to brainwash the students who
learned to read and write by copying these texts) to be loyal to the ruling
dynasty.
Before the Egyptian State emerged, the Neolithic gardening
settlements of the Nile were concerned with the raising of vegetables, grains,
and animals. These settlements slowly gave way to larger groupings of people.
When the Nile gardeners became able to produce enough surpluses for maintaining
a large bureaucracy and the need to control the Nile floodwaters through big
dams and canals had increased, the necessity eventually led to the emergence of
city-states. The multiplied Semitic pastoral tribes, in order to survive,
conquered several of the city-states in the Nile delta, stabilized the central
government, thus creating the new agricultural society – the Egyptians. In a
couple centuries, a new Egyptian society was organized and, by the 29th
century BC, the Egyptian upper class was firmly established. The centralized
bureaucracy was at work, handling a large and well-trained army and organizing
the construction of irrigation systems and pyramids (kings’ tombs) on a large
scale that required the cooperative efforts of millions.
From early times, the Nile gardeners believed in a life after death. This belief
dictated to the alive that, the dead should be buried with material goods to
ensure well being of the dead, who, in their eternity, became the gods. It was
implied that reciprocity of the dead would follow and they would care (from
below) for the alive. The regular patterns of nature (the annual flooding of the
Nile, the cycle of the seasons, and the progress of the sun, moon and planets
that brought day and night) were considered gifts of the gods for the people of
Egypt. The Egyptian culture was rooted in a deep respect for order and balance
of nature. Change and novelty were not considered important in themselves;
consequently, Egyptian art was based on relatively rigid tradition. Manners of
representation and artistic forms were worked out early in Egyptian history and
were used for more than three millennia. The art styles were so rigid because
the primary intention of the Egyptian artists was to reflect the content of the
object (a living creature or a thing), not its form. They tried not to create an
image of an object as it looks to the eye of a living human being, but rather to
express the truth (the essence) of this object. They tried to imaging how it
would be in its eternity. That is what the meaning of the Latin word ‘art’
is.
The Egyptians considered their king (pharaoh) as
more than just a human being because they believed that the king was responsible
for ensuring compliance with a divine order for the universe. Because the king
was considered as the total embodiment of the clerical and state bureaucracies,
art (in its main forms) was devoted principally to royal service. Thus, the
links between divine and earthly power were expressed in many ritual objects.
One of the ritual objects (made about 31st century BC and decorated
on both sides in low relief) was commemorated to the victory of King Narmer’s
northern army over his southern enemy. On one side of this carved stone palette,
the king (wearing the crown of the north) is shown behind his troops that are
marching on the enemy and defeating it. On the other side, Narmer (wearing the
captured crown of the south) is shown subjugating the leader of the south.
The notion that Narmer was wearing the enemy hat,
while leading his troops into the battle, is unreasonable, preposterous, and
just "politically correct". It was designed only to promote the unfounded notion
that Upper Egypt (and thus, central Africa) and not Mesopotamia was the primary
stimulus of the Egyptian progress. Those so-called scientists apparently do not
understand the meaning and relativity of the Greek word progress, which
means ‘to move forward’; however, moving forward in a circle, your finish may be
at your start.
The logical beginning of the depicted event is on the top of the palette (on the
left), which was meant to be read from above. It is comprised of three registers
that lie below the heads of the cow goddess of love (Hathor) and the
king’s name. The heads of the cow goddess of love (the most respected divinity
of the nomadic people) imply that She guards the king from all sides. At the
first register, Narmer (wearing the crown of Lower Egypt) leads his warriors
(who have upraised standards) into the decisive battle. Hanging from the behind
of Narmer’s tunic is a ritual bull’s tail (each hair of which means a soldier),
which served to identify the king with the bull as a figure of power and the
symbol of the upper class. After the battle, the enemy is slaughtered and
unification of Lower and Upper Egypts is a fact. The unification is expressed on
the second register, where two felines (as the ancestral spirits of the
Egyptians roped by the bearded priests), with their elongated necks, form an
indented circle (unity). The indenture that was limited by the circle probably
served for mixing pigments. That is why this is the topside of the palette and
why it was meant to be viewed from above. In the lowest register, a bull (as a
manifestation of the power of the upper class and Narmer himself) subdues the
fallen upper class of the enemy.
The bottom of the palette is comprised of two registers that lie below the heads
of the cow goddess of love, which guard the king’s name (the box between the cow
heads). The scene, which depicted in the upper register, shows Narmer (already
wearing the captured, tall, conical crown of Upper Egypt), who threatens the
kneeling enemy leader (who is nearly the same size as Narmer) with a mace.
Narmer holds the enemy leader by the hair, thus symbolizing conquest and
domination. Over the head of the kneeling enemy is the falcon that symbolizes
the sky god of kingship (Horus). The falcon sits on the top of Narmer’s
boat that floats among the six (remember the Mesopotamian magical number, from
which 60 minutes and 360 degrees of a circle are derived) papyrus plants, which
represent Lower Egypt (from where and by what means Narmer came to the victory
battlefield). Behind Narmer is his servant, who holds Narmer’s sandals. Narmer
took off the sandals because he stands on the holy ground (as the Moslems take
off their shoes when entering their holy ground – a mosque, or like the Koreans,
when they enter a friend’s home). During the first dynasty of the Old Kingdom
servants were killed in order to accompany the dead king to his afterlife;
however, by the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptians considered that the paintings and
statues would be adequate substitutes. In the lower register, the partisans of
the enemy leader are fleeing from only seeing Narmer.
The important event that was reflected on the palette
depicts one of the historical stages that led to unification of Egypt, and at
the same time, it shows that the country had two distinct parts (Upper Egypt in
the south and Lower Egypt in the north). These two distinct parts
counter-balanced each other after each Dark Age, and did not allow the Egyptians
to work out a systematic ideology and to be completely one nation under one God.
Later, we will see why, but for now, the most impressive evidence of the
Mesopotamian influence may be seen in the earliest Egyptian pyramids, called
mastaba (from the Arabic word ‘a bench’ of mourning). The kings of the early
dynasties had tombs at Abydos and Saqqara (near the capital of the Lower Egypt,
Memphis) built in imitation of the Mesopotamian ziggurats with shrines on top of
them.
In the 3rd Dynasty the architect and
prime-minister Imhotep built for King Zoser, who ruled 2737-2717 BC, a burial
complex at Saqqara, that included a stepped stone pyramid and a group of shrines
and related buildings. Designed to protect the remains of the king, the great
Step Pyramid is one of the oldest examples of monumental architecture preserved;
it also illustrates one of the phases toward the development of the true
pyramid. Apparently, Imhotep traveled through Sumer and saw the ziggurats. After
that, he constructed the pyramid at Saqqara, the shape and size of which was
nearly the same as those of ziggurats. He placed six (remember the Sumerian
magic number) mastabas of decreasing size on top of each other (in the shape of
pyramid) over a tomb some 30 meters underground. The experimentation with the
stepped pyramids followed and they were constructed from different numbers of
levels (mastabas). About two centuries later, the three most famous pyramids
were constructed at Giza, about 50 km north of Saqqara.
The architecture of the Old Kingdom (from the 3rd
through the 6th dynasties) can be described as monumental,
rectangular, and frontal. The native limestone and granite were used for the
construction of large-scale royal temples and royal and private tombs. The
pyramid complex at Giza (where the kings of the 4th Dynasty were
buried) illustrates the high intellectual level of Egyptian architects, who
could construct monuments that remain wonders of the world.
The Pyramid of Khufu was about 146-m high, 230-m along each side of its base,
and contained about 2.3 million rectangular blocks with an average weight of 2.5
tons each. The other two major pyramids at Giza were that of Khafre (Khufu’s
son) and that of Menkaure (Khafre’s son). They were built to preserve and
protect the bodies of the kings for eternity. Each pyramid had a valley temple,
a landing and staging area, and pyramid temple or cult chapel where religious
rites for the king’s spirit were performed. Around them, a royal cemetery grew
up, containing other upper class members’ mastaba tombs. For the most part these
tombs were constructed from rectangular blocks of stone over shafts that led to
a chamber containing the mummy and the offerings, but some tombs were cut into
the limestone plateau. From the evidence of tombs at Giza and Saqqara it appears
that the Egyptians built their tombs imitating their real houses, which they
arranged on the streets in the well-designed towns and cities. Because houses
and even palaces were built of unbaked mud bricks, they have not survived. The
temples and tombs, built of stone and constructed for eternity, provide most of
the information on the customs and living conditions of those Egyptians.
From the early figures of clay, bone, and ivory
(in the pre-dynastic period) Egyptian sculpture developed quickly. By the time
of the 3rd Dynasty, large statues of the rulers were made as
resting-places for their spirits. Egyptian sculpture is best described by the
terms rectangular and frontal. The rectangular block of stone was first cut out
of a rock; then, the design of the figure was drawn on the front and the two
sides. The resulting statue was meant to be seen mainly from the front; a
timeless image meant to convey the essence of the person depicted and not a
momentary impression.
The Egyptian artists were not interested in showing the dynamic of a figure.
Figures were posed rather at rest (in static forms). From the beginning of the
dynastic period, the Egyptian sculptors understood human anatomy but idealized
it because they idealized their kings and gave the kings’ images a great deal of
heavenly dignity. A seated stone figure of Khafre (about 25th century
BC) embodies all the important royal qualities. The king sits on a throne
decorated with an emblem of the united lands, with his hands on his knees, head
erect, and eyes gazing into the far distance as if he contemplates over the
long-run interests of the Egyptians. A falcon of the sky god of kingship (Horus),
a son of a goddess of a king’s throne (Isis) behind him symbolizes his
divine right of kingship.
Several forms were developed to depict private persons. In addition to seated
and standing single figures, paired and group statues of the deceased with their
family members were also made. Sculpture was of stone, of wood, and (rarely) of
metal. Paint was applied to the surface and the eyes were inlaid in other
materials (such as rock crystal) to increase the lifelike appearance of
sculptures that depicted workers engaged in the crafts and food preparation.
These sculptures were meant to be included in the tomb as substitutes of the
actual relatives and servants. The images of relatives were meant to entertain
the royal spirit in his afterlife. The images of servants were meant to serve
the royal spirit in his next life. When the sculpture technique became so
advanced that the production of the image of the lower class individual became
cheaper than killing him, then, the images substituted the actual servants.
Thus, the necessity to kill the actual servants (after the death of their
master) fell away. Thus, the Old Kingdom canon that prescribed increasing
naturalism for decreasing social status was worked out.
Relief sculpture on the walls of temples depicted and immortalized the king in
relation to the Egyptians and their gods. In the chambered superstructures of
private tombs, the occupant was shown receiving offerings, enjoying, and
observing the various activities he had taken part in while living.
The method of representing the human figure in two dimensions, either carved in
relief or painted, was dictated by the desire to preserve the essence of what
was shown. Consequently, the typical depiction combines the head and lower body
as seen from the side, with the eye and upper torso as seen from the front. The
most understandable view of each part was used to create a complete image.
This rule (the Egyptian canon) was applied to the images of
the king and other members of the upper class, but the images of the middle and
lower class workers were not so rigidly enforced. When some complicated actions
had to be conveyed with the use of other points of view of parts of the body,
they were used; however, the face was rarely shown frontally. Relief carving was
usually painted to complete the lifelike effect, and many details were added
only in paint; however, purely painted decoration is seldom found in remains of
the Old Kingdom Age.
The Egyptian painters illustrated the various agricultural techniques and
methods of caring for flocks and herds, the trapping of wild animals, the
variety of food and culinary techniques, and the processes of building houses,
boats and other kinds of crafts. They arranged their illustrations on the walls
of tombs in registers (bands), which were meant to be read as continuous
narratives of the timeless occupations. The painters and sculptors (working in
relief) acted as a team, with different stages of the work assigned to different
members of the team.
Pottery of the pre-dynastic period (that was made
with rich decorations) was replaced by beautifully made, but undecorated wares,
often with burnished surfaces, in a variety of useful shapes. Pottery of the
first dynasties served all the purposes for which glass, china, metal, and
plastic are used today; consequently, it varied from vessels for eating and
drinking to large storage containers and brewer’s vats. Jewelry was made of gold
and semiprecious stones in forms incorporating plant and animal designs, because
agriculture was the main source of existence.
Throughout the history of Egypt, the decorative arts were highly dependent on
the agricultural motifs. The number of illustrations in tombs give much
information about the design of chairs, beds, stools, and tables, which were,
generally, of simple design, incorporating plant forms and animal feet. The
columns of the temples and palaces were designed in the same plant-like forms.
From the age of the 6th Dynasty came the oldest surviving metal
statue, made of copper an image of Pepi I, who ruled 2395-2360 BC.
The Pyramid Texts are the mortuary texts that were carved inside the pyramids of
kings; they are the oldest preserved literature. The mortuary texts were
designed to ensure the dead ruler’s rightful place in the afterlife. These texts
incorporate hymns to the gods and daily offering rituals. Many autobiographical
inscriptions from private tombs recount the deceased’s participation in
historical events. Although no stories or ‘wisdom texts’ were preserved from the
Old Kingdom, some Middle Kingdom manuscripts may be copies of Old Kingdom
originals. Such a copy may be "The Instruction of the Vizier Ptahhotep"
composed of maxims illustrating basic virtues – such as moderation,
truthfulness, and kindness. This ‘wisdom text’ proclaimed that virtues should
govern human relations, and it described the ideal person as a just
administrator.
By the end of the 6th Dynasty’s rule, the clerical and local
bureaucracies began to take over the Egyptian central civil bureaucracy. The
priests and local governors gained in social status and personal wealth and
gradually undermined the divine and absolute authority of the king. The power of
the central bureaucracy had been weakened, and henceforth, the local bureaucrats
chose to be buried in own provinces rather than near the royal burial places.
The extreme expenditure of human and material resources on
the army and on pyramids by the central bureaucracy led to demoralization and
corruption of the central bureaucrats, and the 6th Dynasty declined
and died out. The collapse of the central bureaucracy led to the civil war when
rival families competed for the throne and had no time and money to look around
for the nomadic tribes. The irrigation system required constant maintenance, but
nobody had taken responsibility for it. The lower class Egyptians were starved
to death and the country was depopulated.
Following the breakdown of the Old Kingdom, private individuals appropriated the
Pyramid Texts and supplemented them with new incantations. Since then, these
texts were painted on the coffins of commoners, who also had their tombs
inscribed with autobiographical texts, which often recounted their exploits
during this time of political unrest. To this 1st Dark Age (c.
2181-2040 BC) are attributed various laments over the chaotic state of affairs.
One of these, "The Dialogue of a Man with his Soul", is a debate of commoners on
a theme of suicide. The earliest example of the songs sung by harpists at the
funerary banquets of the upper class, advises "Eat, drink, and be merry, before
it’s too late!" Moreover, an anonymous Egyptian poet of that time thus reflected
the situation:
The wrongdoer is everywhere….
Plunderers are everywhere….
Nile is in flood, yet none ploughs for him….
Thus, Egypt became an easy prey for the nomads, who would be the Egyptian new
and more organized upper class.
The 1st Transitional period (the 7th through the 10th
Dynasties) was a time of anarchy and civil wars. Artistic traditions of the Old
Kingdom survived only when the strong rulers emerged in Thebes, the capital city
of Upper Egypt. The rulers of Thebes, who employed the Nubian tribesmen as their
mercenaries, reunited the country and made healthy conditions for the
middle-class activity. Under Mentuhotep II of the 11th Dynasty (who
ruled Egypt from 2040 to 2010 BC and united it in the Middle Kingdom period),
the Egyptians artists and artisans created a new style of the mortuary
monuments. The pyramid complexes of the Old Kingdom were their inspiration. On
the West Bank of the Nile, at Thebes, the Egyptians constructed a valley temple
connected by a causeway to a temple, nestled in the rocky hillside. The walls
were decorated with reliefs of the king in the company of the gods.
The ideology of the Egyptians had the dominating influence in the development of
their culture (as in every other culture), although it did not develop into a
national religion, in the sense of a unified theological system. The unification
of the Egyptian ideology was not completed because of the shifts of central
power from the descendants of the different nomadic tribes. The Egyptian upper
class has been comprised from the Semitic Dynasties that ruled from Memphis,
then, from the Nubian Dynasties that ruled from Thebes. The Egyptians were ruled
by the Libyan Dynasties from Sais, Tanis, and Bubastis, by the Aryan Dynasties
from Persepolis, Alexandria, Rome, and Constantinople, by the Semitic Arabs
again, and so forth. Thus, the Egyptian system of faith had not been
systematized. Although the efforts in this direction were made, but they were
weak and sporadic, leaving only an unorganized collection of ancient myths,
nature worship, and innumerable deities. In the most influential and famous of
these myths, a divine hierarchy is developed and the creation of the earth is
explained.
According to the earlier Egyptian accounts of creation, at first, only the ocean
existed. Then, the sun (Ra) came out of an egg (a flower – lotus, in some
versions) that appeared on the surface of the water. The sun and water brought
forth two sons, the air (Shu) and earth (Geb), and two daughters,
the clouds (Tefnut) and sky (Nut). The sun ruled over all. The
earth and the sky later had two sons, Set and Osiris, and two daughters, Isis
and Nephthys. The younger brother (Osiris) succeeded his father (Ra) as king of
the world because his sister-wife (Isis) helped him. However, the elder brother
(Set) hated his younger brother and killed him. (You can see from where Moses
took his scenario of Cain killing Abel.) Isis then embalmed her husband’s body
with the help of Anubis, who thus became the god of embalming. The powerful
charms of Isis resurrected Osiris, who became king of the netherworld, the land
of the dead. The son of Osiris and Isis, Horus, who later defeated Set in a
great battle, became the king of the world.
From this myth of creation came the conception of the Ennead, a group of nine
divinities, and the Trinity, consisting of a divine father, mother, and son.
Every local temple in Egypt possessed its own Ennead and Trinity. Most of the
Egyptians of the Old Kingdom had known the Ennead that included the sun (Ra) and
his children and grandchildren. In the 12th Dynasty (the second after
the 1st Dark Age) the Nubian sun god (Amon) superseded the
Semitic sun god (Ra), and then, in the 18th Dynasty (the first
after the 2nd Dark Age), the supreme god became the new Nubian sun
god (Aton).
From Egyptian, Amon means ‘hiding’; it also spelled as Ammon, Amen, or
Amun. Originally, Amon was the sun god of the Nubian nomads; his dominant
feature was his reproductive forces. Thus, Amon had been pictured as a ram.
Later, the Egyptian upper class had civilized him and pictured him as a human.
Amon, his wife, Mut (from Egyptian means ‘mother’), and his son, the moon god
Khon (from Egyptian means ‘to traverse the sky’), formed the Trinity of Thebes.
Later, the Egyptian upper class made an attempt of unification of these deities.
The Egyptian priests identified the sun god (Amon) of Thebes with the sun god
(Ra) of Heliopolis, and he became known as Amon-Ra, "the father of the gods, the
fashioner of men, the creator of cattle, the Lord of all being". For awhile,
this semi-universal sun god became the national god of the Egyptians, but the
other deities were worshiped too. The power of the high priest of the sun god
(Amon-Ra) rivaled that of the power of the king, provoking political problems
similar to modern church-state rivalry, and finally led to the 2nd
Egyptian Dark Age. The biggest temple ever built for Amon-Ra was at Karnak, near
Thebes. Later, Amon was worshiped in the ancient Greek colonies of Cyrene, where
he was identified with Zeus. Still later, in Rome, Amon was associated with
Jupiter.
Hieroglyphs at the temple of Amon-Ra, Karnak, glorify King Sesostris I (Senusret
I), the second king of the 12th Dynasty, who ruled the Egyptians
during the years 1971-1928 BC. He was a son of Amonemhet I and the father of
Amonemhet II. Sesostris ruled as co-regent with his father during the years
1971-1962, and became a sole ruler from 1962 BC. He led the Egyptian army
against the Nubians and the Libyans. Under his command, the Egyptian upper class
completed conquest of Nubia and penetrated into Cush. During his reign, the
Egyptian middle and lower classes built Karnak at Thebes and Sesostris' own
pyramid at Lisht. Sesostris also made his son co-regent in 1929 BC.
At this low relief at Karnak, the bearded
Amonemhet I is wearing the conical hat of the Upper Egypt and conducts his son,
Sesostris I (a prince of the Lower Egypt who is wearing the Lower Egyptian hat)
to their common LORD (Amon-Ra). The latter is waiting of this political novice
with his erected penis and, apparently, will soon "know" him in the biblical
sense. Thus, Amon-Ra will teach the novice what political power is all about.
Thus, the upper class notion of political power converges with the notion of the
political power of the lower class prisoners-homosexuals, who think that having
somebody sexually makes them the top-dogs of the prison, and thus, they would
dominate and take into possession those, whom they would copulate. That is why
love can converge with hate. That is why love (Platonic
love) can be expressed in the most elevating and poetic words. That is why
love (jealous love) can be expressed in the most demeaning and dirty
four-letter words. And the writers of the Old and New Testaments thus
interpreted this notion:
"I delight greatly in
the LORD; my soul rejoices in my God. For he has clothed me with garments of
salvation and arrayed me in a robe of righteousness, as a bridegroom adorns his
head like a priest, and as a bride adorns herself with her jewels. For as the
soil makes the sprout come up and a garden causes seeds to grow, so the
Sovereign LORD will make righteousness and praise spring up before all nations".
(Isaiah 61:10) "As a young man marries a maiden, so will your sons marry you; as
a bridegroom rejoices over his bride, so will your God rejoice over you".
(Isaiah 62:5)
"They said to him, 'John's disciples often fast and pray, and so do the
disciples of the Pharisees, but yours go on eating and drinking'. Jesus
answered, 'Can you make the guests of the bridegroom fast while he is with them?
But the time will come, when the bridegroom will be taken away from them [and
become the bride himself, VS]; in those days they will fast'." (Luke 5:34)
If you take into consideration the columns of the temple of Ramses II, the stone
with the laws of Hammurabi, and the Washington Monument in the scenery with the
Capitol Dome, then you will understand what the primary source of political
power is.
Some consistency in worship to the sun god might be traced
from the worship to Ra, chief of cosmic deities, from whom early
Semitic-Egyptian kings claimed descent. Beginning with the 1st Dark
Age, Ra worship acquired the status of a state religion. During the following
Nubian-Egyptian dynasties, the sun god Ra was gradually fused with the sun god
Amon, thus becoming the supreme god Amon-Ra at Thebes. After the 2nd
Dark Age, during the 18th Dynasty, the king Amonhotep III renamed the
sun god Aton, an ancient Nubian term for the sun as a physical source of
daylight. Amonhotep’s son and successor, Amonhotep IV, reformed the Egyptian
ideology by proclaiming Aton the true and only god. Thus, Amonhotep IV adopted a
monotheistic ideology. From Greek, mono means ‘one’ and theo means
‘god’. The only god became the sun god Aton. Amonhotep changed his own name to
Ikhnaton, meaning, ‘Aton is satisfied’. This first great monotheist was so
orthodox and iconoclastic that he ordered to delete the plural word gods from
all monuments, and he relentlessly persecuted the priests of Amon-Ra. He moved
Egypt’s capital down the Nile from Thebes to Amarna, in Middle Egypt. Ikhnaton’s
ideology failed to become the national ideology because it was not systematized
– the different natural feminine powers were not linked to the masculine power
of the sun. Therefore, the priests of the other powers (gods) were resentful to
the monotheistic ideology.
The ideology became the main organizing force in the agricultural society
because it provided satisfactory explanations for the powers of nature; it
helped to ease the anxiety of death, and justified the traditional rules of
morality. Every society that wishes-to-survive must allocate its basic
resources in the way of matching the social roles with rewards. However, the
leaders of a society usually allocate the surplus resources in the
way that the lion’s share of them goes to the upper class. To justify such
unequal distribution the leaders need a moral ideology. Thus, the moral
ideology of the upper class is born, and thus, it becomes the basic part of the
society’s culture. All following laws are considered as the commandments of the
gods. Religion united people in the common enterprises that were needed for
their collective survival, such as conquering territories that are more fertile
or construction and maintenance of the irrigation systems. Religion became the
special inventions of urban culture. It became organizing instruments in the
hands of the ideologists, who shaped the upper class. With this instrument they
could discipline, drill, and handle the large masses of people as units in their
destructive assaults of "alien" peoples, their extermination, seizures, and
enslavement.
The first monotheistic ideology was going in the right direction, but it failed
for lack of knowledge. Consequently, it did not survive the death of its
originator, although it exerted a great influence on the culture of that and
following times, and gave the stimulus for Moses’ monotheistic ideology.
Meanwhile, Egypt returned to the ancient and labyrinthine ideology with many
powers to look for.
The origin of the local deities is obscure; some of them
were taken from the nomadic predecessors of the incoming upper classes, and some
were originally the animal gods of the prehistoric Nile-region. Gradually, they
were all fused into a complicated religious structure, although comparatively
few local divinities became important throughout Egypt. In addition to those
already named, the important divinities included the Semitic gods Thoth, Ptah,
Khnemu, and Hapi, and the goddesses Hathor, Mut, Neit, and Sekhet. Their
importance increased with the political ascendancy of the localities where they
were worshiped. For example, a Trinity of the father Ptah, the mother Sekhet,
and the son Imhotep headed the Ennead of Memphis. Ancient inscriptions describe
Ptah as "creator of the earth, father of the gods and all the being of this
earth, father of beginnings". He was regarded as the patron of metalworkers and
artisans and as a mighty healer. He is usually represented as a mummy bearing
the symbols of life, power, and stability. The main center of his worship was in
Memphis.
Consequently, during the Semitic-Egyptian dynasties of Memphis, Ptah became one
of the greatest gods in Egypt. Similarly, when the Nubian-Egyptian dynasties of
Thebes ruled Egypt, the Trinity of the father Amon, the mother Mut, and the son
Khon (that headed the Ennead of Thebes) was given the most importance by the
ruling bureaucracy. As the religion became more involved in the affairs of the
State, the deities were sometimes confused with human beings that had been
glorified after death. Thus, Imhotep, who was originally the chief minister of
King Zoser of the 3rd Dynasty, was later regarded as a demigod.
During the 5th Dynasty, the kings began to claim divine ancestry and,
from that time on, were worshiped as sons of the sun god. Minor powers were also
given places in local divine hierarchies.
The Egyptian gods were represented with human torsos and human or animal heads.
Sometimes the animal or bird expressed the characteristics of the god. The sun
god (Ra), for example, had the head of a hawk, and the hawk was sacred to him
because of its swift flight across the sky. Hathor, the goddess of love and
laughter, was pictured as cow-headed, and a cow was sacred to her. Anubis was
given the head of a jackal because these animals ravaged the desert graves in
ancient times. Mut was pictured as vulture-headed, Thoth was ibis-headed, and
Ptah was given a human head, although he was occasionally represented as a bull,
called Apis. Because of the gods to which they were attached, the sacred animals
were venerated, but they were not worshiped until the 26th Dynasty
(after the Assyrian domination). The gods were also represented by symbols, such
as the sun disk and hawk wings that were worn on the headdress of the king.
Burying the dead was of the primary concern of the
Egyptians, and thus, their funerary rituals and equipment eventually became the
most elaborate the world has ever known. The Egyptians believed that the vital
life force was composed of several psychical elements, of which the most
important was the soul (Ka). The soul, a duplicate of the body,
accompanied the body throughout life and, after death, departed from the body to
take its place in the land of the dead. However, the soul could not exist
without the body; therefore, every effort had to be made to preserve the corpse.
Bodies were embalmed and mummified according to a traditional method (that was
supposedly created by Isis, who mummified her husband Osiris). Moreover, wood or
stone replicas of the body were put into the tomb, just in case if the mummy
would be somehow destroyed. Than more statue-duplicates the individual had in
his tomb, the more chances he had of resurrection. Consequently, exceedingly
elaborate protective system of the tombs was designed to protect the corpses and
their afterlife equipment from all kind of natural and social disasters.
The soul of the dead supposedly is beset by innumerable
dangers while leaving the tomb; therefore, the tombs were furnished with a copy
of the Book of the Dead. In part, this book is a guide to the world of the dead,
which was designed to overcome these dangers with some charms. After arriving in
the land of the dead, the soul was judged by Osiris, the ruler of the dead, who
had 42 assistants. The Book of the Dead also contains instructions for proper
conduct before these judges. If the judges decided that the deceased had been a
sinner, his soul would be condemned to hunger and thirst or would be torn to
pieces by horrible executioners. If the decision was favorable, then, the soul
went to a kind of paradise (the heavenly realm of the fields of Yaru, where
grain grew nearly four meters high, milky rivers with honey banks were flowing,
and existence was an extremely pleasurable version of life on this earth).
Consequently, all the necessities for this happy afterlife
existence (from furniture to literature) were put into the tombs. As the
reciprocal payment for the happy afterlife and his benevolent protection, Osiris
required the souls to perform tasks for him, such as working in his grain
fields. However, not breaking the reciprocity, the duty of manual labor could be
evaded by placing small statuettes (called ushabtis) into the tomb to
serve as substitutes for the deceased.
In the Middle Kingdom period, this theory was changed for a more realistic one,
because the supreme god became Amon-Ra, and the center of the new cult switched
to Thebes. There are a few preserved examples of the Middle Kingdom architecture
(the 11th and 12th Dynasties). A small building of
Sesostris I of the 12th Dynasty has been recovered from one of the
later pylons of the Karnak Temple, for which its blocks were reused as filling
material. This small chapel, actually a station for the procession of a sacred
boat, may be used to typify the style of the time. Essentially rectangular in
design and constructed on the post-lintel (two vertical posts and a horizontal
crossbeam) system, this small building has proportions that meant to express its
timeless character. The piers are decorated in fine raised relief with images of
the king and the gods.
The famines and civil wars were not forgotten and the Egyptian painters and
sculptors had attempted to express those feelings and thoughts in their
paintings and sculptures. Thus, the artifacts of the Middle Kingdom Age seem to
be more realistic than those, which came from the previous Age. The early work
of the Middle Kingdom Age directly imitates the Old Kingdom examples in an
attempt to restore old traditions and techniques that were lost in the Dark Age.
It takes time for the new generations of artists to reinvent the forgotten
techniques of their trade. However, the sculpture of the second half of the 12th
Dynasty exhibits an interest in reality. Portraits of rulers such as Amonemhet
III and Sesostris III, who ruled 1878-1843 BC, are different from those of the
Old Kingdom rulers; these images of the king are only slightly idealized.
These figures were not brought to the godlike images of the earlier Age because
relations between the social classes were changed and the memories of betrayal
popped up and burst into skepticism. Thus, the ideology of skepticism began to
show its ugly face. The new artists reflected in their portraits and sculptures
the new kings’ care and concern of the bureaucratic office; however, the bone
structure, indicated beneath tight surfaces that imitated skin, produced the
predator-type of realism that was not regular before. At all times, statues of
the members of the upper class tended to imitate the royal style; and the
statues of the upper class individual of the 12th Dynasty show that
kind of realism.
The tombs of the upper class individuals continued to be placed in their own
centers of influence rather than at the royal cemetery near the capital city
(some kind of the Arlington cemetery). Although many of these tombs were
decorated in relief carving like the Aswan tombs in the south, the tombs at Beni
Hassan in Middle Egypt were often decorated only with painting. Those that were
preserved show that the provincial artisans were trying to adhere to the
standards of royal workshops. Some new types and depictions appear, but the old
standards served as a guide to the subjects and arrangements. Painting is also
illustrated by the decoration of the rectangular wooden coffins typical of this
period.
In the Middle Kingdom, the decorative arts were abundantly produced; jewelry was
made of precious metals inlaid with colored stone. The art of faience
(tin-oxide-glazed earthenware) achieved a new importance for the manufacture of
amulets and small figures, such as the blue-glazed hippopotamuses decorated with
painted water plants.
Besides already mentioned Coffin Texts, the Middle Kingdom period left numerous
texts of ritual hymns to a king and various deities, including a long hymn to
the Nile. Private autobiographies containing historical information continued to
be inscribed, and rulers began setting up Stella (stone slabs) on which their
important deeds were recorded. From the 1st Dark Age and the Middle
Kingdom periods came some stories and instructional texts. The latter were
written in the name of a reigning king, who tried to explain his son and
successor how his specific political decisions might be bad, and thus influence
his future leadership.
"The Satire on Trades" stresses the bad aspects of all possible
occupations except the profession of the scribe. "The Story of Sinuhe"
narrates of a high-ranking bureaucrat, who fled to Syria and became a rich and
important man there at the death of King Amonemhet I. Amonemhet was the first of
the 12th Dynasty, the last dynasty before the 2nd Dark
Age. Amonemhet tried to limit the power of the local and clerical bureaucracies
through reorganizing the central government and moving the capital to Faiyum,
but his son, Sesostris I, returned it at Thebes. "The Story of the
Shipwrecked Sailor" recounts a marvelous encounter of the Sailor with a
giant snake on a luxuriant island. "The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant"
narrates of a man who was so eloquent pleading for the return of his stolen
donkeys that the bureaucrats kept him in protective custody for a while, in
order to enjoy his orations. "The Story of King Khufu and the Magicians"
is the earliest preserved medical and mathematical papyri of the Middle Kingdom
period.
The 2nd Transitional period (13th through 17th
Dynasties) was a time of another disintegration of Egypt and anarchy among the
ruling bureaucracy. The period of the 13th Dynasty was a speedy
procession of 50 or more rulers in about 120 years. Upper Egypt broke away from
the central bureaucracy. The Hyksos, the Semitic nomadic tribes of Syria and
Lebanon, took the rotten Egyptian bureaucracy by surprise and established the 17th
Dynasty in Egypt. The Hyksos sacked the land and set themselves up as the upper
class and rulers of Lower Egypt. This had a lasting impact on the land, because
the Hyksos brought to Egypt new technology (new types of chariots and body
armor) and a new and broader view on the Mediterranean world. The new
bureaucracy dominated Lower Egypt about a century; however, for the lack of
knowledge about native conditions, it became too dependent on the clerical
bureaucracy, and soon, degenerated. The reunification of Egypt came from Upper
Egypt, and Thebes was reestablished as its capital city. Most of the
Hykso-Egyptians had been expelled by the Nubian-Egyptians, but a small portion
of them, which collaborated with the newly established upper class, became the
middle-class of merchants and artisans. Later, when the Libyan nomads would
establish a new upper class and the Nubian-Egyptian would be transferred into
the middle-class, the Hykso-Egyptians would probably become the lower class of
the forced laborers. However, fearing to become the lower class, the twelve
extended families of them would again prefer to become the nomads under the
leadership of Moses, who preached the Judaic ideology.
The New Kingdom, beginning with the 18th Dynasty
of the Nubian descent came to power, wealth, and influence, which were
materialized through extensive foreign trade and territorial expansion. The
kings of the 18th through 20th Dynasties were great empire
builders and they were generous to the religious architects. The most important
deity in Egypt became the local god Amon. Almost every ruler in the New Kingdom
had added something to the cult center of Amon, at Karnak. The result is one of
the most impressive temple complexes in the human history. Pylon gateways,
colonnaded courts, and columnar halls with obelisks and statues created an
impressive display of the power of the king and the clerical and state
bureaucracies.
On the West Bank of the Nile, near the royal cemetery of Thebes, temples for the
gods and the funerary cults of kings were built. During the New Kingdom, the
bodies of the rulers were buried in rock-cut tombs in the dry Valley of the
Kings, with the mortuary temples at some distance outside the valley. One of the
first and most unusual was the mortuary temple of Queen Hatshepsut, built about
1478 BC under the management of the royal architect, Senemut. Situated against
the Nile cliffs, next to the 11th Dynasty temple of Mentuhotep II,
and apparently inspired by it, the temple is a vast terraced structure with
numerous shrines to the gods and reliefs that depict the queen’s
accomplishments. Other rulers did not follow the precedent and continued to
build their mortuary temples at the edge of the cultivated land, away from the
cliff-side. The rock-cut tombs were deepened into the cliff-sides of the Valley
of the Kings in an effort to conceal the resting-places of the royal mummies.
The long descending passageways, stairs, and chambers were decorated in relief
and painting with scenes from religious texts intended to protect and aid the
spirit in the next life.
The Book of the Dead, the mortuary texts of the Middle Kingdom period that were
written on papyrus, were meant to be included in the tombs of the New Kingdom
period. Among the most famous hymns from this period are those from the reign of
Ikhnaton dedicated to the sun god as the sole god. King Kamose, who ruled about
1576-1570 BC, at the end of the 2nd Dark Age (1786-1570 BC), recorded
the early stages of driving the Hyksos-Egyptians out of Egypt (1600 BC). After
the early New Kingdom, the number of such royal historical inscriptions
increased greatly, while private autobiographical texts gave way to the
ideological texts.
Thutmose III boasted his various wars in Syria on his so-called the Poetical
Stella and on the walls of the temple at Karnak. Both records describe how the
king called in his advisors to apprise the difficult situation. The advisors
advised to try the easy way, but he told them that he is not afraid and will
dare the more dangerous route. Finally, the king’s course succeeded. The
extensive records of the Late New Kingdom rulers were preserved. Ramses II and
Ramses III of the 19th Dynasty left poetic accounts and chronicles of
their deeds and military exploits, such as the Battle of Kadesh, where Ramses II
"succeeded" against the Aryan Hittites. These instructive texts were directed at
low-rank bureaucrats, trying to explain them why acting on the assumption that
right thinking and just action (which supposedly would automatically lead to
worldly success) is not enough. Instead, the texts promote the idea that a
prolonged contemplation and endurance would suffice. Among the stories that were
preserve and are worthy to mention is "The Destruction of Mankind", in
which humanity is spared from annihilation by getting the goddess Hathor drunk
on blood-colored beer. "The Tale of the Two Brothers" is a story of a
good younger brother betrayed by his suspicious elder brother.
Under Ramses II, the Egyptians cut into the mountainside and
created the gigantic temple of Abu Simbel in Nubia to the south, with four
colossal figures of the king in front. This temple was saved from immersion
beneath the waters of the new Aswan High Dam. In 1968, the Egyptians cut out
facade and halls of the temple of the mountain and moved it to a higher site.
Domestic and palace architecture was built of perishable mud bricks, because the
houses and palaces were meant to serve for the mortals. However, remains that
were preserved convey an idea of well-designed multi-roomed palaces with painted
floors, walls, and ceilings. Houses for the upper classes were arranged like
small estates, with residential and service buildings in an enclosed compound.
Examples of the middle and lower classes workers’ dwellings were also found.
They were clustered together in villages, very much like those of modern Egypt.
The art of sculpture in the New Kingdom reached a
new height. The extreme idealism of the absolute monarchy in the Old Kingdom and
the bitter realism of the somewhat constitutional monarchy in the Middle Kingdom
were replaced with a polite style of the constitutional monarchy that combined
beautification with attention to delicate detail (the Egyptian Baroque). Begun
in the reigns of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III, this style reached maturity in the
time of Amonhotep III. Portraits of the rulers and other members of the upper
class of this period are saturated with grace and sensuality.
The art of the time of Ikhnaton (son of Amonhotep III) reflects the ideological
reformation that Ikhnaton tried to promote. Ikhnaton worshiped the sun god (Aton)
and he insisted that the artists should reflect the new direction. Early in his
reign, a realism that verged upon caricature was used. However, this realism
developed into a beautifying style, which tend to eliminate all rigid and sharp
characteristics of a personality. This style was embodied in the painted
limestone head of Nefertiti, Ikhnaton’s wife (c. 1365 BC).
In the New Kingdom relief carving was generally used for the
decoration of tombs and temples, but at Thebes, wall painting came to dominate
the decoration of private tombs. The medium of painting made possible a wider
range of expression than sculpture, allowing the artist to create colorful
tableaus of life on the Nile. Funerary rites are illustrated from the procession
to the tomb to the final prayers for the spirit.
One of the standard elements of the Old Kingdom canon in the Theban tomb
paintings is a representation of a deceased hunting and fishing in the papyrus
marshes. His joyful pastimes symbolized his triumph in afterlife over the malign
dark forces of this world. The painters showed the local bureaucrats inspecting
the exotic merchandise brought to Egypt from all parts of the known world. The
crafts of the royal workshops are depicted in meticulous detail, illustrating
the production of all kinds of articles, from massive sculptures to fine
jewelry.
The decorative arts of the New Kingdom are equal
to the sculpture and painting in their high level of accomplishment. The best
example of them is in the funerary items from the tomb of Tutankhamen, in which
rich materials (alabaster, ebony, gold, ivory, and semiprecious stones) were
combined in objects of high artistry. Ordinary objects for the use of the king
and other members of the upper class were exquisitely designed and made with
great care. Even the pottery of that time partakes in this desire for
decorations, which were colorfully painted on the pottery surfaces employing
mostly floral motifs. From the evidence of tomb paintings and the decorative
arts follows that the Egyptians of that time had optimistic outlook on the life
in this world.
Favorable climate in foreign relations during the 18th and 19th
Dynasties and the first part of the 20th Dynasty were succeeded by
harsh relations with the surrounding nomadic tribes, which multiplied
uncontrollably. Ramses III, the last ruler of the 20th Dynasty (who
could successfully defend Egypt from the nomads, which already sacked the
Hittites Empire), built an immense mortuary temple (1198-1167 BC) near Thebes. A
small palace adjoining the temple was intended for the use of the king during
life and by his spirit after death. Ramses III had to be constantly on defensive
guarding Egypt from foreign invasions. The battles of these campaigns were
recorded in reliefs on the temple walls. However, during the second half of
ruling of the 20th Dynasty, its kings relied whole-heartedly on the
clerical and local bureaucracy and neglected the civil central bureaucracy. The
result was devastating.
The Libyan nomads captured Egypt and the Libyan leaders created the 21st
through 24th Dynasties. Some scholars considered this time as the 3rd
transitional period. Its span was more than 350 years. During the 3rd
Dark Age, the central bureaucracy resided at the new capital cities – at Sais,
Tanis, and Bubastis in the Nile delta.
Then, the Nubian nomadic tribes conquered Egypt and managed to create the 25th
Dynasty. Becoming overlords of Egypt, the Nubian adopted many Egyptian customs,
and took to themselves the traditional role of the upper class with an absolute
monarch as their spearhead. They refurbished old temples and erected new ones to
the gods of Egypt. They incorporated in their names those of famous kings of the
past, and their art imitated scenes and motifs from earlier monuments. Later,
the Assyrians invaded Egypt and eventually put an end to the domination of the
25th Dynasty.
The Assyrians were not able to hold Egypt for long. The appointed vassals of the
Assyrians created the 26th Dynasty at Sais and ruled for nearly 140
years. The restoration of tradition that begun in the 3rd Dark Age,
were continued by the 25th and 26th Dynasties. The arts
flourished – sculpture and bronze casting became major industries; contacts were
made with the Greeks, some of whom served in the Egyptian army as mercenaries.
The art of the 26th Dynasty used many ancient forms, often literally
copying motifs from earlier monuments, because the new generations, after the
civil and foreign wars, lost touch with traditions, and therefore, should
restore interrupted knowledge.
The 26th Dynasty perished from the Persians, who conquered Egypt. The
Persian rulers are counted as the 27th Dynasty. Egypt later enjoyed a
brief period of native rule with a flourishing of the arts in the 29th
and 30th Dynasties. A second, shorter, Persian domination (31st
Dynasty) ended with the invasion of Egypt by Alexander the Great in 332 BC.
After Alexander’s death, Ptolemy, one of his generals, declared himself king of
Egypt and created a family dynasty that ruled until the Roman conquest of Egypt
in 31 BC. Under Alexander and the Ptolemies, Hellenistic art and architecture
flourished in Egypt. However, the main artistic expression remained under firm
influence of the Old Kingdom canon, even if the rulers were not native to the
land and (as with the Persians and Romans) were not even residents of Egypt.
The Egyptian art exerted a powerful influence on the cultures of the invaders.
Early Greek artists acknowledged a debt to Egypt in the development of their own
styles. The Romans carried off countless examples of Egyptian art into Italy and
even commissioned copies by Roman artists, as admirers of the Egyptian art forms
and as users of the Egyptian religious cults they had adopted. From the
subsequent centuries, into the Greco-Roman era, examples from the full range of
Egyptian literary forms are known. These forms include new religious
compositions, private and royal historical records, instructions, stories, and
scientific treatises such as medical, mathematical, and astronomical papyri. "The
Instructions of Onchsheshongy" is a collection of largely pragmatic maxims,
many of which sound like proverbs. "The Instructions of Papyrus Insinger",
which portrays the wise person as being moral and pious and sharply contradict
own earlier expressions of belief in rewards in this life. In this period, many
stories were written about the adventures of various magicians – such was a
cycle recounting the exploits of a legendary king, Petubastis. One largely
mythological tale consists of a series of animal fables. Contacts with
contemporary Greek artists can be seen through the comparison of the Egyptian
and Greek epic cycle and the fables. It can be seen also in Egyptian texts
(including prophetic literature) translated into Greek, and in a range of
magical texts known in both Greek and Egyptian.
The Byzantines replaced the Romans in the 5th century; then, the
Arabs came in the 8th century and introduced Islam and the Arabic
language. Egypt was ruled as part of larger Islamic empires for several
centuries. The Mamluks, a military caste of Caucasian nomadic origin, ruled
Egypt from 1250 until their defeat by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. Under Turkish
sultans, Egypt was ruled on the Old Persian manner and the Egyptian hereditary
viceroy had wide authority. Britain took control of Egypt in 1882, though
nominal allegiance to the Ottoman Empire continued until 1914. Egypt was a
British colony from 1914 to 1922. A 1936 treaty strengthened Egyptian autonomy,
but Britain retained bases in Egypt. Egypt became independent in 1951.
The uprising in 1952, led by General Mohammed Naguib, dethroned King Farouk.
When the republic was proclaimed in 1953, Naguib became its first president and
premier. Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser removed Naguib and became the Prime Minister
in 1954. In 1956, he was voted as the president. Nasser died in 1970 and Vice
President Anwar Sadat became the president. He was assassinated in 1981 by a
group of Islamic fundamentalists, and Hosni Mubarak became the president.
The river valleys of the Indus and Ganges are considered the birthplace of
Indian urbanism. Located on the Indian subcontinent in modern Pakistan, the
Indus ancient cities were not discovered by archaeologists until 1924. Myths and
legends blur the ancient history of this region. However, it appears that by 4th
millennium BC horticulturists were raising vegetables, grains, and animals along
the banks of these mighty rivers. By 25th century BC, two major
cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, and numerous smaller towns had emerged.
There is some evidence that Mesopotamian traders reached the early Indian towns
by sailing from Sumeria to the Indus Valley. While the Indians shared some
developments – such as complex irrigation and drainage systems and the art of
writing – with the Sumerians, they also developed a unique cultural style of
their own.
What little is known of the Indus ancient societies suggests that it had large
city-states that were well laid-out and well fortified. There were public
buildings, palaces, baths, and large granaries to hold agricultural produce. The
many artifacts and artworks found by archaeologists indicate that the residents
of those city-states had reached a high level of culture before their societies
were destroyed.
According to the Rig-Veda, the ancient Hindu scriptures
written after the 25th century BC, Aryan invaders conquered the
earliest Indian city-states. The Aryans, who were a nomadic people (who used to
pasture their cattle in the area between the Caucasus, Taurus, and Zagros
mountains) captured the horticultural city-states and united them into an Indian
agricultural federation with a class (caste) system, which persists to
the present-day in the Hindu law. The Indian social system, which divides all
people into social classes with differing rights and responsibilities, was a
formal expression of the ancient Aryan ideology that combines the theory of life
and death of an individual with the theory of social interdependency and labor
division. Three basic classes (with minor variations in times and localities)
persists to the present days; they are: 1) upper class of clerical and military
bureaucrats (the Brahmans - priests and teachers, and the Kshatriyas -
soldiers); 2) middle class of civil bureaucrats, farmers, and merchants, (the
Vaisyas); and the lower class of serfs and slaves (the Sudras and Untouchables),
who should serve uncomplaining to the superior two classes.
'Caste' is the term that was first used by the 16th-century Portuguese traders
who applied it to one of the many hereditary classes established among the Aryan
Hindus. The word 'caste' derived from the Portuguese word 'casta' that denotes
family strain, breed, or race. The latter notions in Sanskrit are expressed by
the words 'jati', 'hati', and 'varna'. The term 'varna' denotes a group of
'jati' (families or tribes) and approaches to the modern term 'class' or
'caste'; and the latter is sometimes used in a general sense to
refer to any society that has a rigid hereditary class structure.
The class system of India developed about 3500 years ago when Aryan-speaking
nomadic tribes captured the horticultural city-states in the Indus River Valley.
The process of conquering northern India started about 2500 BC, and the dust
settled about 1500 BC. The Aryan priests, according to the ancient sacred
literature of India, divided the new society into a basic class system.
Somewhere between 200 BC and 100 AD, the Law of Manu was written, through
which the Aryan priest-lawmakers maintained the Hindu hereditary class society
that still survives today.
The lower class of the Sudras and Untouchables has been time to time filled up
with the Dravidians, the original horticultural aborigines of India, to whose
ranks from time to time were added the pariahs, or outcasts, persons expelled
for religious or social sins from the superior two classes into which they had
been born. Thus maintained with the Hindu religious laws, the Hindu class system
has been requiring little or no violence on the part of the upper class to keep
the lower classes under their control.
Claiming the divine revelation, the Hindu clerical bureaucrats proclaimed the
rigid, hereditary membership in the Hindu classes. It means that one must accept
and practice the craft or trade of his father, marry only members of the
same class. There are many restrictions on the choice of occupation and on
personal contact with members of other classes. The Hindu class system has been
maintained for millennia by the clever propaganda of the idea of 'karma'
(destiny), according to which, all people are reincarnated on earth, at which
time they have a chance to be born into another, higher class, but only if they
have been obedient to the rules of their present superior class. In this
way, the idea of destiny has discouraged the lower class people from attempting
to rise to a higher class or to cross the class lines . During the past three
millennia, the three basic classes have been subdivided again and again in
accord with the times and localities, until today it is impossible to tell their
exact number. Some anthropologists estimate range from 2000 to 3000 different
classes established by the Brahman laws throughout India, because each region
has its own distinct groups defined by craft and fixed by custom.
The complexities of the hereditary class system have constituted a serious
obstacle to the social progress in India. The trend today is toward the
dissolution of the artificial barriers between the classes. The stringency of
the Hindu caste system was nearly broken down during the two centuries of
British rule in India. The obligation of the son to follow the calling of his
father is no longer binding, men of low classes have risen to high military
ranks, and excommunication (the loss of membership in a class) is not as serious
as it may once have been; however, the clerical bureaucracy is still taboo for
the lower class people. However, from time to time, the clerical bureaucrats
burst from within by ecclesiastical schisms (the most notable of which was the
Buddhism) as protest against the extreme exploitation of the class system by the
upper class people, who allegedly deviated from the "normal" rule of the Hindu
class society.
The main point of the internal dissent was and is the question of property. The
upper class ideologists insist that property is necessary for the maintenance of
order in the universe. Their lower class opponents insist that property is the
external cover of the individual's body that should be dissolved before the
individual can unite with the Infinite and Eternal Individual. Only
relinquishing himself from wife, children, and other property, the individual
can dissolve his own individuality in order to converge with the Infinite Bliss
(nirvana).
In recent years, considerable efforts toward eradicating the more visible
social and economic injustices of the Hindu class system have been made by the
party of the middle class, led by Mohandas Gandhi, who tried to bolster the
Indian social progress through educational reform. His example of the
passive resistance to the British rule, his bestowal of his personal wealth upon
the poor, his own life of asceticism, his deep fervor and want-to-give uplifting
to the oppressed classes, and his eloquence won for him the reputation of a
saint and the surname "Mahatma" that means 'Great Soul'. The drafted
constitution of India, which was published a few days after the assassination of
Gandhi by an upper class extremist in January 1948, stated in a special clause
under the heading "human rights" -- "Untouchability (read "slavery", VS) is
abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden".
As I pointed out earlier, the ancient Hindus had been stressing the middle age
stage of life -- the husbandry. The main feature of the husbandry was,
is, and will be the property -- the mental and physical extension of a
being (and not only a human being) into his/its environment. With the help of
this extension, the male provides the female and his/its progeny with the
necessities of life, hoping to earn the exclusive right for sex with this
particular female. And a female needs a particular male, who, she ought to be
sure, will not hurt her or her progeny while she is weak. There would be no
necessity for the notion of property, if the entire society would consist only
of bisexual (or too young and too old) individuals. In such a homogeneous
society, a person would forget such possessive notions as 'my' or
'mine' unless a couple of them would encounter with a person of a definite
gender, who will introduce them to such kind of pleasure they can die for.
The possessive notions emerge only then when two or more mature males compete
between each other for females (for sexual pleasure, if you will). Thus, a male
marks his territory, from the fruits of thereof he can provide the peaceful
pleasure inside of "his" family, hoping to gain exclusive right for sexual
pleasure with a particular female, while waging a constant war outside of his
family. A mature female needs a particular male, who, she ought to be sure, will
not hurt her or her progeny while she is weak. On these mutual needs they begin
to build their system of property. When their need in each other will be
weakened and either of them begins fornicate or adulterate, they provoke a war
(about the scale of which they can never be sure, remember the Trojan War).
Usually in a human society, the levels of family and its property evolve from
the property of a male-female family to the property of a tribe,
of a federation of closely related tribes by blood, of a city-state
(a federation of tribes that are not closely related by blood), of a state
(a federation of city-states), and of an empire (federation of states).
That is how the humans can provide for themselves the peaceful distribution of
pleasure (sex and other means of existence). The level of family and its
property is an indicator of the level of consciousness and fairness of the
cooperating adults. When this internal level of consciousness and fairness would
drop, a revolution would come, and the external boundaries of an empire would be
ruined and the evolution of the state building would start all over again from
scratch.
The older and sophisticated we are, the higher level of family and property
usually we can embrace; and the ultimate cooperation in the distribution of
pleasure comes to an individual (usually with the old age) when he can mentally
extend himself to the level of the universe. And as we already know from the
dialectics that the extremes do converge into each other and the biggest becomes
the smallest; thus, the elders can embrace the universal property (the God or
Nature) and, at the same time, to refute any "earthly" property. That is why
nearly all religions require celibacy from their own prominent keepers; because
sex evokes property and property must be protected, and it means the permanent
war with the transgressors of this property.
Now we can understand an oracle of a French anarchist, Proudhon, who liked to
say, that 'property is theft'. Indeed, if I am married, "my" wife cannot be a
property of anybody else but me, and I cannot be a property of anybody else but
her. And it means that I stole her and she stole me from other people. However,
if we, as a society (the organized people), managed to agreed that such kind of
theft is in the long range interest of everyone (or at least in the long range
interest of the majority), then, constitutionally, this 'theft' lost its bad
quality and became 'marriage'. That is what a good constitution ought supposedly
to do - to separate our long range interests from our minor and short range
interests, and to crystallize them into a precise language that we can no longer
use the terms of 'theft' and 'marriage' interchangeably.
And usually a religion provides a society with such a kind of constitution,
which teaches us what is good and what is bad for us in the long
and short runs. By definition, 'religio' means to gather, to unite
people, not to divide them. You cannot unite all people (or the majority) around
a hate ideology or around an ideology that is not in the long range interests of
the majority, but you can temporarily unite some people to hate others because
their short range interests blinded them shortly. That is why all world
religions appeal primarily to the human emotion of love, and Sciences
appeal primarily to the human reason (a world religion and a science, both can
be screwed in the short run, but they cannot be screwed in the long run). Those
sciences and religions (like Astrology or Judaism) that could not rise to the
full principle of reason or love, will never become the real sciences or the
world religions. For instance, because Judaism incorporated abridged reason (the
inquisitorial principle of justice) and an abridged principle of love
(propagating love only toward the Jews), it will never become a world religion,
no matter how hard its proponents will proselytize or will thrash other
religions. Later we will see clearer what Judaism is all about, but, for now, we
should return to the Hindu texts.
It is worthy to consider how the authors of the old Hindu texts had been
changing their attitude toward the earthly property, accumulation of which had
not been perceived as the ultimate goal. The Hindu clerical bureaucrats
considered 'property' as the necessary ingredient of life without which the
sacrificial ceremonies would not be possible. Corn, oil, and meat of the
sacrificial plants and animals would not go up with the smoke of a hearth and
then drop down in a rain as the animating forces of life if a part of the crop
would not be taken away from the producers as a tax. Somebody, who would enforce
and collect those taxes, should be the owner of the population and the
territory, which they populate. And without sacrifices, the full circle of life
would be stopped; therefore, the real work of the upper class is to do the
sacrificial ceremonies on the account of the working class people, yet on behalf
of all classes. Therefore, the priests and the soldiers should aspire toward the
material wealth because 'a wealthy man is dear to the gods and a poor one is
deprived of their favor and thus suffers'. However, material wealth had not been
considered as something static ('the more we accumulate, the wealthy we are'),
but had been perceived dynamically ('the more we can take and spend as the
sacrifice today, the more we will take and spend the next time'). Therefore, the
leaders, the kings needed the material wealth in order that their 'fame was
expanding'. Therefore , all taxes and booties (the "taxes" on other nations)
went on the sacrificial ceremonies and the following lavish feasts. The more
numerous were the king's courtiers, the greater expanded 'the fame of the king'
and the greater would be his prestige among the relatives and the rest of
bureaucracy.
In short, the upper class Hindu ideologists considered taxes as the meal of the
king that enabled his body (the state bureaucracy) to grow. The king "eats" the
lower rank bureaucrats, who, in their turn, "eat" the lower class people. 'As
the cows among the animals, thus and the slaves among the people are the
meal.'
Considering the property dynamically, the upper
class Hindu ideologists also considered it as a part of the human body (not as
an internal one, but as an external one). Therefore, they analogized an
individual (atman) with the hub of a wheel, and his/her property -- with its
spokes and rim. From this analogy derived the Hindu concept of birth and rebirth
of the universe (God, Nature, or the Infinite Bliss) and its constant/discrete
expansion/intensification. And from this analogy derived the Sanskrit word
'swastika' that means 'well-being' and is regarded by the Hindus as a good luck
symbol and the wheel of progress/regress. The left bent spokes of the swastika
reflect the notion of expanding universe (that grows out), while the right bent
spokes represent the intensifying universe (that contracts in). The proponents
of the lower classes fairly pointed out that the individual, who tries to unite
with the Universe, must relinquish his own external boundaries, which is his
property. Now you know the rest of the story and why the German Nazis chose the
right bent swastika as their symbol and "their" well-being, and why they
"forget" about the left bent swastika.
And we already acquainted with the Hindu theory of the internal development of
an individual , as well as with the basic concepts of the Aryan ideology, which
later developed into Hinduism and the ideology of the Knowledgeable One;
therefore, we can go after the implementation of those theories in other times
and other places.
The horticulturists had settled in the valley of the Yellow
River (Huang He) by 40th century BC. By this time, they already knew
gardening techniques, made pottery, wheels, and silks, but they had not yet
discovered writing or the uses of metals.
The country’s numerous mountain ranges enclose a series of plateaus and basins
and furnish a stable water supply and mineral resources. A broad range of
climatic types, from the sub-arctic to tropical, and including large areas of
alpine and desert habitats, supports a large variety of plants and animals.
Mountains occupy about 2/5 of the land, presently called China; mountainous
plateaus account for another ¼; and basins, predominantly hilly, in terrain, and
located mainly in dry regions, cover approximately 1/5 of the area. Only 1/8 of
the total area may be classified as plains.
Occupying the remote southwest extremity of China is the world’s highest plateau
of Tibet, which has an average elevation of about 4.5-km above sea level.
Bordering ranges include the Himalayas on the south, the Pamir and Karakoram on
the west, and the Kunlun Shan and Qilian Shan on the north. The surface of the
plateau is crossed by several mountain ranges, which contains the headwaters of
many major south and east Asian rivers, including those of the Indus, Ganges,
Brahmaputra, Mekong, Yellow, and Old-Fellow (Yangtze).
All the major river systems of China, including the three
longest (the Old-Fellow, Yellow, and Hsi Chiang) flow generally from west to the
Pacific Ocean, where about ½ of the total land area drains. Only about 1/10 of
the country’s area drains to the Indian and Arctic oceans. The remaining 2/5
drains in the dry basins of the west and north, where the streams evaporate or
percolate to form deep underground water reserves. The northernmost major river
that divided China and Russia is the Amur. The Sungari and Liao rivers and their
tributaries drain most of the Manchurian Plain and its surrounding highlands.
The major river of North China is the Yellow. It is usually referred to as
"China’s Sorrow" because, throughout Chinese history, it has periodically
devastated large areas by flooding, because its bed is elevated above the
surrounding plain because of the accumulation of silt. The river rises in the
marginal highlands of the Tibetan Plateau and follows a circuitous course to the
Yellow Sea, draining an area more than twice the size of France. The Old-Fellow
River of central China is the longest river in Asia; it has a vast drainage
basin and its water-discharge more than ten times that of the Yellow River. The
Old-Fellow River rises in Tibet and enters the Yellow Sea at Shanghai. The most
important river system of South China is the Hsi Chiang, which enters The
South-China Sea at Canton and Hong-Kong.
The Mongolian plateau region that is located in north central China consists
mainly of sandy, stony, or gravelly deserts that grade eastward into steppe
lands with fertile soils. This is a region of flat-to-rolling plains,
partitioned by several barren flat-topped mountain ranges. Along its east border
is the higher, forested Khingan Range, east of which is the Northeast region of
China, which incorporates the Manchurian Plain and its bordering uplands. The
uplands are hilly to mountainous, with numerous broad valleys and gentle slopes.
The North Plain of the Yellow River valley is the largest flat lowland area in
China; it consists of fertile soils derived from loess. Most of the plain is
under intense cultivation. The Central Plain embraces the Old-Fellow River
valley, and it consists of a series of basins with fertile alluvial soils. The
Hsi Chiang Basin is predominantly a hilly area with infertile soils; however,
fertile, flat, and alluvial valleys border the numerous streams of this region.
The Chinese population is approximately 93% ethnically Chinese (Han). The
Chinese are primarily of Mongoloid race and weakly differentiated by ethnic
(linguistic) variation. The ethnic minority population is settled over nearly
2/3 of the territory of China. This gives the non-Han peoples of China a
significance that counts greater than their percentage of the population might
suggest.
Presently, more than 70 million individuals belong to 56 ethnic minorities. Most
of these groups are distinguished from the Chinese by language or religion
rather than by racial (physical) characteristics. The main ethnic minorities are
the Thai-related Chuang (about 15 million), the Hui (Chinese Muslims, about 8
million), the Turk-speaking Uygur (about 7 million), the aboriginal Yi (about 6
million), the aboriginal Miao (about 6 million), the Tibetans (about 5 million),
and the Mongols (about 4 million). Other ethnic groups include Koreans, Puyi,
and Manchus. The Manchus are descendants of the people who conquered China in
the 17th century and established the Ching or 10th
Dynasty. They are almost indistinguishable from the Han Chinese, because they
have literally made the present-day Chinese. Now, we will see how they did that.
The earliest horticultural city-states had developed in the valleys of the
Yellow and Old-Fellow rivers by 20th century BC. Cities were long
important marketplaces and administrative centers of a multitude of the
independent horticultural States. By the 20th century BC, they had
waged constant wars with each other for the borderlines. In the 17th
century BC the city-states in the valley of the Yellow River were captured by
the Manchurian nomadic tribes and were united into an agricultural society under
the Shang dynasty.
The Shang dynasty (1766-1122 BC) is the first documented era of ancient China.
The first Chinese nation was a highly developed hierarchy that consisted of an
upper class (headed by a king), a middle-class of commoners, and a lower class
of serfs and slaves. The capital city was Anyang at the Yellow River. The valley
of the Yellow River has fertile loess uplands that are found in the central
area. Rice and wheat were the leading crops. In present time, cotton, tobacco,
peanuts, and sesame are also grown. Some scholars have suggested that traders
from Mesopotamia and from Southeast Asia brought agricultural methods to China,
which stimulated the growth of ancient Chinese agricultural society. The Chinese
of the 1st Dynasty were known for their use of jade, bronze,
horse-drawn chariots, ancestor worship, and highly organized armies.
China has had an organized government since the establishment of the Shang
dynasty about 1726 BC, making it one of the oldest nations (class societies) on
the earth. Historically, a central bureaucracy administered the political
control of the large Chinese population from a capital city and a series of
local governments of varying political significance. Like other ancient peoples,
the Chinese developed unique attributes.
Their form of writing, developed by 20th century
BC, was a complex hieroglyphic system of picture writing using forms called
ideograms, pictograms, and phonograms. Such early forms of Chinese became known
through the discovery by archaeologists of oracle bones, with writings inscribed
on them. These bones were used for fortune-telling and record keeping in ancient
China. The bone was heated with a brand until it cracked. The meaning of the
shape of the crack supposedly had the divine nature, which would be interpreted
by the priests, and a particular interpretation might be added to the bone.
Presently, the official spoken language of the Chinese is the dialect of North
China, which is also known as Mandarin or "standard speech". Some efforts have
also been made toward modifying the written language. The use of simplified
characters (traditional characters written with fewer strokes or in a type of
shorthand) has steadily increased. This has been done to facilitate the
government’s goal of broader literacy, because the old system of some 12
thousands hieroglyphs proved to be difficult to remember even for highly
educated professional scribes.
Ethnic minorities of China have their own spoken languages, which include
Mongolian, Tibetan, Miao, Tai, Uygur, and Kazakh. Formerly, many of the minority
languages did not have a written form; the Chinese government, however, has
encouraged the development of written scripts for these languages, using Pinyin
(the Latinized transcription of Mandarin). These ethnic minorities continue to
use their native languages. However, the Mandarin-based dialect is taught in
schools, as a second language, and knowledge of it is required throughout China.
One of the early acts of the Chinese Communist party, after it gained control in
1949, was to eliminate legally all other organized ideologies, which we already
know as the ideologies of the Skilful Master, Old Master, and Knowledgeable One.
The Chinese rendered little resistance to the Communist party’s move because of
the quasi-systematized nature of the communist (Marxist-Leninist) ideology. In
addition, they did not resist because the first generation of Communists was
compassionate to the interests of the lower class people, who comprised 93% of
the Chinese. Moreover, they did not resist because all three major Chinese
faiths lacked strong systematization or allegiance to the interests of the lower
class. The Christianity and Islam were comparatively unknown to the large masses
of Chinese. Most temples and religious schools, the communists converted to
their own purposes. Only with the communist constitution of 1978, the Chinese
were bestowed a few rights for political dissent and the old ideologies were
legalized in China. However, the communist constitution also stated that the
Chinese had the right to hold no religious beliefs and "to propagate atheism".
Of course, by what means the Chinese would ‘propagate atheism’, was left to
decide for the local communist bureaucrats.
According to Chinese legends, the Chinese people originated in the Yellow River
valley. The legends tell of a creator, Pan Ku, who was succeeded by a series of
heavenly, terrestrial, and human sovereigns. Archaeological evidence is very
scant, but there is some evidence that rice was grown in eastern China 7.5
thousand years ago and about five centuries later an horticultural society
developed in the Yellow River valley. There is strong evidence of the several
horticultural societies, which had different pottery cultures from the 40th
to the 17th centuries BC.
Tradition names the Hsia (c. 1994-1766 BC) as the first hereditary dynasty of a
horticultural society in the Yellow River valley, which was subsequently
overthrown when the last Hsia ruler fell into debauchery and mistreated his
people. However, there is no archaeological record to confirm this story. The
Shang is the earliest dynasty for which reliable historical evidence exists.
The 1st Dynasty (Shang) ruled the agricultural society with several
cities, located on the territory of the present-day northcentral Chinese
provinces of Henan, Hu-bei, and Shandong and the northern part of Anhui. The
capital city (from about 1384 BC) was Anyang, near the northern border of Henan.
The economy was based on cultivation of millet, wheat, barley, rice, and
silkworms. Pigs, dogs, sheep, and oxen were raised. Bronze vessels, weapons, and
other tools, which indicate of a high level of metallurgy and artistry, have
been found. The Chinese society under the 1st Dynasty was a society
with an absolute monarchical government. The head of the Chinese State was a
king who presided over the military and civil bureaucrats and, at the same time,
he was the high priest. Between the military bureaucrats and the middle-class of
commoners was a literate layer of the priests that kept the records of
government and was practically the civil and clerical Chinese bureaucracy.
Territorial rulers were appointed by the king and were compelled to support him
in military endeavors. The Chinese of the 1st Dynasty worshiped their
ancestors and a multitude of gods, the principal of whom was known as the Lord
on High (Shang Ti).
The account of the fall of the 1st Dynasty that appears in
traditional Chinese histories follows closely the story of the fall of the
Hsia’s horticultural dynasty. The last monarch of the 1st Dynasty was
a cruel and debauched tyrant, who was overthrown by a vigorous king of Chou, a
State in the Wei River valley, one of the tributaries of the Yellow River.
Situated on the northwestern fringes of the Shang domain, the culture of Chou
was a mixture of the basic elements of Shang ideology and the certain martial
traditions of the Hun nomads of the north and west.
During the Chou dynasty rule (1122-221 BC), the ancient Chinese urbanism had
flowered. During this 2nd Dynasty period the empire was unified, a
middle class arose, and iron was introduced. The Skilful Master developed the
code of ethics, and the Old Master developed relativism. These two, with the
addition of the ideology of the Knowledgeable One, have dominated the Chinese
culture for the next 25 centuries.
From the 11th to the 7th century BC, under the 2nd
Dynasty, the Chinese Empire was gradually extended over most of present-day
north and center of China, including the Old-Fellow River valley. The quick
expansion of the Empire territory and the primitive means of overland
communications made it impossible for the central bureaucracy to exercise direct
control over the broad region, nearly the size of three Frances. The eyes of the
central Chinese bureaucracy were bigger than their stomachs, which could not
digest what they had. Therefore, they delegated authority to vassals, each of
which ordinarily ruled a walled city (or town) with surrounding lands. The lord,
whose position was hereditary, headed the hierarchy of these feudal-like
provinces. Below him were hereditary fighting men, and, lowest in the social
scale, the serfs (peasants) and domestic slaves. In time, these vassal provinces
became increasingly autonomous. Under the 2nd Dynasty, the Chinese
society was organized around agricultural production. The land was ideally
divided into square tracts, each of which was subdivided into nine square plots
forming an equilateral grid. The eight outer plots were assigned to eight
peasant families, who pooled their efforts and resources to cultivate the center
plot for the support of the upper class. The extent to which this system of land
distribution was employed is uncertain, but later dynasties thought that it is
the most equitable manner of apportioning land.
Religious practices corresponded to the hierarchical social system. The kings of
the 2nd Dynasty believed that it is Heaven, which gave them a mandate
to rule and which sanctioned their political and clerical authority. The kings
of the 2nd Dynasty sacrificed to the Lord on High, now called Heaven
(Tien) and to their ancestors. The lords of the provinces sacrificed to the
local deities (powers), as well as to their ancestors. Individual families
offered sacrifices to their ancestors. If sacrifices were neglected, misfortunes
and calamities should be expected. The 2nd Dynasty was able to
maintain effective control over their domain until 770 BC, when their
expansionistic policy met the challenge of the communicative technology. After
that, several of their provinces rebelled and, together with Mongolian nomadic
tribes, forced the Dynasty from their capital city, which was near of
present-day Xian.
Subsequently, the 2nd Dynasty established a new capital to the east,
at Loyang, where they were somewhat secure from the attacks of the nomads.
However, the late 2nd Dynasty could no longer be absolute political
or military authority over the vassal provincial bureaucracies that were still
loyal to them in some matters. In time, some of these local bureaucracies had
grown economically and politically more powerful than the central bureaucracy.
Then, the 2nd Dynasty retreated to their clerical authorities and, as
representatives and wards of Heaven, they continued the management of the civil
bureaucracy through the institution of confirming the rights of provincial lords
to rule their lands. Thus, they remained nominal overlords until the 3rd
century BC, though their actual power had been gone long ago.
From the 8th to the 3rd century BC, rapid growth of the
economy and the middle-class went against a background of extreme political
instability and nearly incessant warfare. During these centuries, the economy of
China was revolutionized by the invention of iron tools. The iron-tipped and
oxen-drawn plow, together with improved irrigation techniques, brought higher
agricultural output. The higher surplus could support a steady rise in
population and, corresponding to it, increase of the middle class (if not as
percentage, then, in absolute numbers). The growth in population was accompanied
by the production of new material wealth, and the middle-class of artisans,
traders, and merchants became stronger. The communicative techniques were
improved by the building of a new type of road; chariots and horseback riding
were improved also. The military tactics were adopted from the Mongols, for
example, when the Chinese of the northwestern borders learned to use the mounted
cavalry units.
Economic integration enabled the provincial rulers to exercise control over
greater territory, and they became engaged in a chaotic expansionistic policy.
The military bureaucrats of the provinces that lay on the outer borders of
China, at their own risk, waged wars with non-Chinese neighbors and expanded at
the expense of the less advanced in technology and organization. For the
innermost provinces of China, expansionistic policy meant aggression against
other Chinese provinces. By the 6th century BC, in the Yellow River
valley, seven powerful Chinese provinces emerged. A few smaller, relatively weak
provinces surrounded them. Nominally, they were united under the 2nd
Dynasty, however, in reality, the Dynasty was squeezed and morally and
physically degraded; its military and civil authority became increasingly
dependent on its clerical authority. Thus, the weakness of the central military
bureaucracy and the emergence of the powerful local bureaucracies created
increasingly unstable interstate relations and China had submerged under the
first wave of its 1st Dark Age.
During the 7th and 6th centuries BC, brief periods of
stability were achieved through the organization of the interstate alliances and
confederations under the domination of the strongest member. However, by the
late 5th century BC, the system of confederations had proved to be
unworkable to protect justly the interests of the weaker members; and the
Chinese confederations disintegrated. China of the 2nd Dynasty was
plunged into a condition of interstate anarchy and the second wave of the 1st
Dark Age, which is also known as the Warring States Age (403-221 BC).
The intellectual response of the social classes to the extreme instability and
insecurity produced the class ideologies that would shape the growth of the
Chinese consciousness for the next two millennia. The earliest and most
influential of the middle-class ideologists of that period was, the Skilful
Master (Kung Fu-tzu or Confucius). The Skilful Master represented the middle
level of the civil bureaucrats, who now were needed to help the military
aristocracy to deal with the complicated problems of domestic administration and
interstate relations. The Skilful Master directed his proposals to restore the
central military and civil bureaucracy of the early 2nd Dynasty. He
believed that the sage rulers, who established the 2nd Dynasty, had
worked to create an ideal society by the example of great personal virtue that
was based on reason. Therefore, he tried to create a class of virtuous and
cultivated civil bureaucrats who could take over the high military positions of
the government and lead the Chinese (showing personal example) to peaceful
wealth and prosperity. The Skillful Master thought that wealth and prosperity
could be achieved not through territorial expansion, but through intensive use
of the present territory, which is possible through the reasonable and just
administration of it.
The ideology of the lower class was expressed by the Old Master (Lao-tzu) in his
Way and Its Powers (Tao-te Ching) and in the works of the Virtuous Master
(Chuang-tzu, c.369-286 BC). This ideology disdained the intricately structured
system that the Skilful Master favored for the cultivation of human virtue and
the establishment of strong civil central bureaucracy. The lower class ideology
advocated a return to the primitive horticultural communities, in which life
could follow the most natural course. The central and local military and civil
bureaucracies should be discharged and eliminated; it would permit a spontaneous
response to nature by the majority of the Chinese, who are the peasants.
The ideology of the upper class was expressed through so-called legalism,
the representatives of which reasoned that the extreme contemporary disorders
called for new extreme measures. Thus, the legalists advocated the establishment
of a social order based on the strict and impersonal (draconian) laws that would
govern every minutest aspect of human activity. To enforce such a pedantic
system they desired the establishment of a totalitarian State, in which the
ruler would have unquestioned (absolute) authority. The legalists urged the
transfer all property into the possession of the central bureaucracy,
establishment of government monopolies on the production and distribution of the
necessities. They also conceived other economic measures designed to enrich the
central bureaucrats, strengthen their military power and civil control.
The military, civil, and clerical bureaucracies of the 2nd
Dynasty grew weaker until its regime collapsed in 256 BC. Meanwhile, a new
dynasty had been arisen. Following in the riverbed of the upper-class ideology
of the extremists-legalists, one of the peripheral provinces of the north, the
Manchurian Chin, embarked on a reform program of its military and civil
bureaucratic apparatus. In 246 BC, a duke succeeded the throne of the Chinese
feudal estate of Chin under the name of Cheng. Duke Cheng subjugated the other
feudal estates into which China was divided at that time and, in 221 BC,
declared himself the sole master of China, assuming the title of the First
Emperor (the Lord of Yellow High – Shih Huang Ti) of the Chin Dynasty. Thus,
China got its name from this 3rd Dynasty.
With the assistance of a cunning legalist
minister, the First Emperor fused the loose confederation of autonomous
provinces into a centralized military, civic, and clerical bureaucracy, and
thus, culturally unified the Empire. The hereditary upper classes of the
provincial military aristocracy were abolished and their territories divided
into 36 (later 42) provinces governed by bureaucrats appointed by the emperor.
The 3rd Dynasty’s capital city (near the present-day city of Xian
that lies at the Xiang River, which is between the Yellow and Old-Fellow rivers)
became the first seat of imperial China. The need for intelligent bureaucrats
evoked the promotion of educational programs, and a standardized system of
written characters was adopted. The use of new characters was made compulsory
throughout the Empire. The system of standard weights and measures, coinage, and
axle widths were designed to promote internal trade and economic integration of
the Empire. The private landowning system was adopted, and laws and taxation
were applied and enforced equally and impersonally. The want-to-cut all people
on the same cultural manner led the First Emperor to outlaw the ideologies of
the middle and lower classes. On the advice of his legalist minister, he decreed
that all books that disagreed with the legalists’ ideology of the upper class
should be burned. Only the legalists’ ideology of the upper class was legalized,
and in 213 BC, the books of all other schools were burned, except for copies
held by the imperial library.
Implementing the legalists’ program, the First Emperor also
tried the expansionistic policy; and he expanded the territory of his empire far
beyond the previous boundaries of China. In the south, his armies marched to the
delta of the Red River (in Vietnam). China was expanded in all directions.
However, the center of the Empire remained in the Yellow River valley. To
integrate the newly gained territories, the Chinese constructed roads and
canals. Aside from centralizing the military and civil bureaucracy, unifying and
expanding China, the best-known achievement of the 3rd Dynasty was
the building of the major portion of the Great Wall, to protect China from the
raids of the nomadic Huns.
Excavation of the First Emperor’s tomb showed a gigantic
complex of vast underground chambers surrounding a huge burial mound near Xian.
The tomb revealed an army of more than six thousands life-size figures (made of
terra cotta) of cavalrymen on horses and infantrymen, fully equipped for attack.
Probably, these figurines, like the Egyptian ones, were the substitutes, which
supposed to accompany and serve the Emperor, in his conquests in the afterlife
world.
The conquests of the 3rd Dynasty, the Wall building and other
legalists programs were accomplished at enormous expenses of material and human
resources. The increasing burden of taxation, military service, and forced labor
spawned a hot resentment against the rule of the 3rd Dynasty among
the middle and lower classes of the new empire. Moreover, the new bureaucrats
(who willed-to-take more wealth and prestige for themselves, and quickly)
alienated the literate old aristocracy in provinces.
The successor of the First Emperor got under the influence of a cunning palace
eunuch (a la Rasputin). A palace power struggle followed, crippling the central
bureaucracy, and the rebellion arose.
From the civil war that marked the last years of the 3rd Dynasty,
there arose a new leader, Liu Pang, emperor of China (206-195 BC), who founded
the Han Dynasty (206 BC – 9 AD). A rebel army officer of the generation of the
new bureaucrats, having deposed the last emperor of the 3rd Dynasty,
he proclaimed himself emperor under a new name, Kao Master (Kao Tsu). However,
he had to fight rivals for actual power, which he secured by 202 BC. The new
emperor made a pact with the northern nomadic people, relatives of the Huns, who
had been raiding China, promising to give them food and clothing in return for
cessation of hostilities. It was the first treaty between two independent powers
in the Far East and set the standard of international diplomacy in the region
for two millennia.
The 4th Dynasty, which Kao Master established, was the most durable
of the imperial age. The 4th Dynasty had built on the unified
foundation laid by the legalistic 3rd Dynasty, modifying the extreme
legalistic policies that had resulted in the downfall of the 3rd
Dynasty. Burdensome laws were abolished, taxes were sharply reduced, and a
free-trade policy was adopted to promote economic recovery. At first Kao Master
granted some provinces as hereditary feudal estates to some of his allies and
relatives (recreating the hereditary aristocratic class), but in a couple of
generations this local hereditary bureaucracy had been eliminated, and almost
all China was again under direct rule of the central bureaucracy.
One of the most important contributions of the 4th Dynasty was the
establishment of the middle class ideology of the Skilful Master as the official
ideology; and that is why this dynasty had been so durable. While staffing the
bureaucratic hierarchy, the emperors of the 4th Dynasty followed the
Skilful Master’s principle of appointing men based on merit rather than birth.
Written examinations were adopted as a means of determining the best people. In
the late 2nd century BC, an imperial university was established, in
which prospective bureaucrats were trained in the five classics of the Skilful
Master’s school (reading, writing, math, history, athletics). Trying to serve
well to the interests of all classes, the 4th Dynasty had implemented
its policy based on the Skilful Master’s ideology. However, being eclectic,
emperors of the 4th Dynasty incorporated some ideas from other
ideologies and employed popular superstitions to augment and elaborate the spare
teachings of the Skilful Master. Thus, they embarked onto the expansionistic
policy.
Almost all of what today constitutes China was brought under imperial rule,
although many areas, particularly south of the Old-Fellow River, were not yet
assimilated. Chinese authority was forced upon southern Manchuria and northern
Korea. In the west, the armies of the 4th Dynasty had fought with the
nomadic tribes of the Huns and even penetrated to the valley of the Syrdarya
River (in Kazakhstan). Emperor Wu’s expansionist policies consumed the surplus
that had been accumulated during the free-trade administrations of his
predecessors and necessitated a restoration of the upper class legalistic
policies to refill the state treasuries.
Taxes were increased, government monopolies on the production and distribution
of necessities revived; inflation had been galloping and the currency was
debased, because people lost trust into the bureaucracy. The technology of
production had not been substantially improved, and the sufferings of the
peasants were aggravated by the population growth that was reducing the size of
the individual land holding while the taxation was increasing. During the 1st
century BC, standards of living of the middle and lower classes worsened
further. Infants, whose mothers often filled government posts with unqualified
members of own family, inherited the throne for several times. Factions that fed
on the incompetence of some bureaucrats weakened the central government. Because
the factional struggle arose in the center, the large-scale land-holding
families in the provinces challenged the tax-collecting authority of the central
bureaucracy and acquired a kind of tax-exempt status. While the number of
tax-free estates grew, the treasury of the central government shrank and its
power dissipated. The burden of the taxpaying commoners and peasants became
unbearable. Provincial uprisings and banditry reflected the popular
dissatisfaction of that time.
During this period of disorder, an ambitious regent, Wang Mang, deposed an
infant emperor, and established himself as the Emperor (9-23 AD). He attempted
to revitalize the central government and relieve the conditions of the middle
and lower classes. The government moved against the large tax-free estates by
nationalizing all land and redistributing it among the actual cultivators.
Serfdom and slavery was abolished. The government continued to implement the
legalistic policies in the area of governmental monopolies on salt, iron, and
coinage; and some new monopolies were established. However, the new emperor
temporarily implemented some lower class polices – he fixed prices to protect
the peasants from cunning merchants and provided low-interest loans to the needy
to begin productive enterprises. However, the resistance of the powerful
land-holding class was so great, that the emperor was forced to repeal his
legislation against free trade and large land estates. The agrarian crisis
intensified, and matters were made worse by the breakdown of major North China
water-control systems that had been neglected by the fiscally weakened
bureaucracy. A large-scale rebellion broke out in northern China under the
leadership of a group known as the Red Eyebrows. Soon, they joined with the
large-scale land-holding families, and finally succeeded in killing Wang Mang
and reestablishing the rule of the 4th Dynasty.
Administrative weakness and inefficiency plagued the late 4th Dynasty
(25-220). From the start, the central bureaucracy became demoralized by the
appointment of incompetent maternal relatives of the infant emperor. With the
help of the court eunuchs, subsequent emperors were able to get rid of these
incompetent relative-bureaucrats, but there was a catch – they were replaced
with equally incompetent eunuchs. Because the government was again torn apart by
factionalism, the warfare between the eunuchs and the bureaucrats erupted in
168. By 184 two great rebellions of the lower class, under the leadership of the
adherents of the Old Master’s ideology, had also broken out. For two decades,
the faction of the Yellow Turbans ravaged Shandong province and adjacent areas,
and only in 215, the general Tsao Tsao was able to pacify another group, the
Society of Five Pecks of Rice in Sichuan province.
The Empire of the 4th Dynasty began to crumble and fall apart. The
central bureaucracy had been disintegrating while the large-scale land-holders,
taking advantage of the weakness of the central bureaucracy, had been
establishing their own private military bureaucracies and the whole armies.
Finally, in 220 the son of Tsao Tsao seized the throne and established the Wei
dynasty (220-65). However, the other leaders with dynastic aspirations sprang up
in other parts of the country and China was broken in three kingdoms. The Shu
dynasty (221-263) was established in southwestern China, and the Wu dynasty
(222-280) in the southeast. The three kingdoms waged incessant warfare with each
other for domination. In 265 Ssu-ma Yen, a powerful general of the Wei dynasty,
usurped that throne and established the Western Chin, dynasty (265-317) in North
China. China continued to be divided and, by the 4th century, there
were nine small kingdoms.
The main reason for this disintegration of China was the different vision on the
necessary policies to implement the interests of the principal landowning
families. The land owning aristocracy pursued own interests through the
nine-grade controller system, by which prominent individuals in each
administrative area were given the authority to rank local families and
individuals in nine grades according to their potential for government service.
Because the ranking system was arbitrarily implemented, it frequently reflected
the wills-to-take of the leading families rather than the merits of those being
ranked.
Meanwhile, the Mongolian nomadic tribes seized the opportunity, afforded by the
lack of the central government, trying to extend their pastoral lands into the
fertile plains of the Yellow River. Invasions began in 304, and by 317, the
nomads had annexed the valley of the Yellow River. For the next three centuries,
this valley was ruled by the Mongolian dynasties. While the south was ruled by a
sequence of four Chinese dynasties, all of which were centered in the area of
the delta of the Old-Fellow River.
China was reunited under the rule of the Sui Dynasty (589-618). The first
emperor of the 5th Dynasty was Yang Chien, a military bureaucrat who
usurped the throne of the northern Mongolian kingdom. During the next eight
years he completed the conquest of the Old-Fellow River valley and established
his capital at Xian. The 5th Dynasty emperors revived the centralized
bureaucracy and reinstated competitive examinations for the selection of the
best administrators. Although the ideology of the Skilful Master was given
preference, the ideologies of the Old Master and Knowledgeable One were also
embraced in formulating a new ideology for the empire.
The brief reign of the 5th Dynasty was a time of intense activity.
The Great Wall was repaired at an enormous expense of the human and material
resources. A canal system, which later formed the Grand Canal, was constructed
to carry the rich agricultural produce of the delta of the Old-Fellow River to
Loyang and the north. Chinese control was reasserted over northern Vietnam.
However, a prolonged and costly campaign against a kingdom in southern Manchuria
and northern Korea, ended in defeat. With its prestige seriously tarnished and
its population impoverished, the Empire was again in the fire of a civil war and
the 5th Dynasty fell in 617.
The leader of the rebels, Li Yuan (Sunny), founded the Tang
dynasty (618-906). The 6th Dynasty repaired the central bureaucracy
through the system of civil service examinations of recruits. The system was so
well designed that its basic form survived into the 20th century. The
apparatuses of the local bureaucracies were restructured as to provide maximum
support for the central apparatus, and an elaborate code of administrative and
penal law was enacted. The capital city, Changan, became a center of cultural
activities. Many ideologies and religions were practiced. Foreign trade was
conducted with Central Asia and the West over the caravan routes. The merchant
ships from the Middle East run regularly to the port of Canton. The imperial
bureaucrats extended their influence over Korea, southern Manchuria, and
northern Vietnam. In the west, creating alliances with Central Asian nomadic
tribes, the 6th Dynasty controlled vast territories, up to
Afghanistan.
The economic and military strength of the Empire was based on a system of equal
land allotments made to the adult male population. The per capita agricultural
tax (paid by the allotment holders) was the main source of government income.
The basis of the Empire’s military power was the compulsory periodic military
service. However, difficulties had mounted because the central bureaucrats
continued to give tax-brakes for the large estates and to make large grants of
land to those whom they favored. Because of population growth, by the 8th
century, allotment holders inherited greatly reduced plots of land, but the
annual tax per capita remained the same. Peasants fled their allotments, thereby
reducing government income, depleting the armed forces, and creating banditry.
Militia forces could no longer protect frontier areas, and defense was entrusted
to the foreign mercenaries and troops.
The early emperors of the 6th Dynasty were
generally able monarchs, including the Empress Wu, a former imperial concubine,
who ruled China from 683 to 705. However, the emperor Hsuan Tsung, who ruled
from 712 to 756, became enamored of the courtesan Yang Kuei-fei (a la Madam de
Pompadour), thus neglecting his duties. The emperor allowed Yang to place her
friends and relatives in the essential governmental posts. One of Yang’s
favorites was the general An Lu-shan, who quarreled with Yang’s brother over
control of the government, hastening a revolt in 755. Peace was restored only in
763, when the allied Central Asian nomads were called to quench the fire in
blood. After the rebellion of An Lu-shan, the central government of this Dynasty
was never again able to control the troops on the frontiers. Some commandeers of
the troops became hereditary dukes and regularly withheld tax-collections that
should go to the central bureaucracy. The mercenary system spread to other areas
of China, and by the 9th century, the area that was under effective
control of the central government was limited to Shaanxi Province.
During the stagnating period of the 6th Dynasty, the Chinese culture
flowered. The poets Li Po, Tu Fu, and Po Chui and the prosaic Han Yu created
their works at this time of political instability. Worsening of the political
atmosphere had run jointly with the change of ideologies. During the peaceful
and prosperous years of the early 6th Dynasty, the Knowledgeable
One’s ideology had reached the highest point of its popularity. Nevertheless, by
the time of rupture of this dynasty, literate bureaucrats became mainly the
adherents of the Skillful Master’s ideology. They worked out a new attitude of
regarding the ideology of the Knowledgeable One as a disruptive force in the
Chinese society. In 845, the central bureaucrats launched a campaign of a
full-scale persecution of the adherents of the Knowledgeable One’s ideology.
Nearly 5,000 monasteries and 40,000 temples and shrines were destroyed and more
than 260,000 monks and nuns of this and other religions were forced to return
under the control of the central military and civil bureaucracy.
The political factionalism reflected the bad economic policies of the central
bureaucracy, which promoted the creation of the unmanageable handicraft guilds
(industrial monopolies), the use of paper money, and commercial centralization.
The collapse of the 6th Dynasty followed and China disintegrated into
ten independent States. During following period, the Liao dynasty (907-1125) of
the Khitan Mongols, based in Manchuria and Mongolia, extended its influence over
the Yellow River valley, and Peking (Beijing) became the capital city of their
Chino-Khitan Empire.
In 960, a military leader of a southern province, Chao Kuang-yin, usurped the
sovereignty and proclaimed the establishment of the Sung dynasty (960-1279). By
978, the 7th Dynasty controlled the central and southern river
valleys. Until 1126, the capital city of the 7th Dynasty was Kaifeng,
in the Old Fellow River valley; then, the dynasty was forced to move at the
southern Hangzhou. Fearing to disperse its military power to the frontiers, the
early 7th Dynasty gravely limited the provincial military bureaucracy
and subordinated it to the civil bureaucrats, who had become to dominate every
aspect of social life. The civil service examination system was improved to
provide the central bureaucracy with a constant flow of talents. The 7th
Dynasty reorganized its central apparatus and made it more effective than it was
under the 6th Dynasty, although the local administrative structure
was left untouched. The Chinese culture (its literature, arts, philosophy, and
sciences) continued to develop along the lines established by the proponents of
the Skilful Master. Education flourished, and the economy continued to intensify
and diversify; however, it was not enough to supercede the military weakness of
the Southerners.
After repeated defeats in the battles with the northern Khitan Empire, the 7th
Dynasty signed a treaty in 1004, ceding permanently the part of the Old Fellow
River valley and agreed to pay an annual tribute to the Khitans. In 1044, after
a prolonged struggle with a Tangut nomadic tribe on the northwest border, the 7th
Dynasty again bought peace with a tribute. By the middle of the 11th
century, the 7th Dynasty experienced serious fiscal difficulties. The
population growth was way ahead of the economic growth and famines became more
frequent. Expenses, associated with the defense of the northern border, consumed
a major portion of annual income and the appetites of the central military and
civil bureaucracies were growing. To repair the damage, the military and civil
bureaucrats proposed the different measures of reform, and the bureaucracy was
torn apart by factionalism.
In 1069, a young emperor of the 7th Dynasty appointed the able Wang
An-shih as his Prime Minister. Realizing that government income was mainly
linked to the prosperity of the individual taxpayer, Wang conceived a series of
reforms designed to increase government income, reduce expenditure, and
strengthen the military. He proposed – the equal land holdings and loans to all
peasants, to assist them in planting and harvesting; the elimination of their
servitude (the compulsory labor service); a differentiated tax on wealth; and
state purchase of surplus commodities for resale or distribution in times of
famine. His propositions were partially adopted; however, they were soon
abandoned because of the opposition of the bureaucrats, who were connected to
the large-scale landholders. In the early 12th century, prompted by
the fiscal and military weakness, the 7th Dynasty had to ally with
the Chin dynasty of northern Manchuria against the Khitan Empire. When
confederates defeated the Khitans, the Manchurians turned on the 7th
Dynasty and marched onto their capital; they took Kaifeng in 1126. The 7th
Dynasty retreated to the south.
The economic prosperity and intellectual achievements of the southerners far
surpassed those of their northern relatives. Rapid economic development enabled
the 7th Dynasty to strengthen its central bureaucratic apparatus. Chu
His (1130-1200) improved the ideology of the Skilful Master by synthesizing it
with some metaphysical concepts the Knowledgeable One’s doctrine, to present a
more balanced vision of the universe. After the death of Chu His, the 7th
Dynasty bureaucracy deteriorated and collapsed under the pressure of a numerous
military forces of the northerners, the growing population of whom necessitated
them to expand their territory.
In 1206, a confederation of the Mongol tribes was organized at Karakorum in
Outer Mongolia. The Mongols established themselves as a unified power under the
leadership of Genghis Khan, and moved on a series of conquests that resulted in
the establishment of the largest Empire in the world. The Manchurians first fell
to the Mongol armies, which captured Peking in 1215 and subsequently extended
their power over the valleys of the Yellow and Old-Fellow rivers. They conquered
the southerners in 1279, after Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis, had succeeded
to Mongol leadership.
Kublai moved the Mongol capital from Karakorum to a site
close to Peking. From there, the 8th Dynasty ruled the Empire that
stretched from Eastern Europe to Korea and from northern Siberia south to the
northern rim of India. The 8th Dynasty adopted much of the
bureaucratic apparatus that had existed under the Khitans, Manchurians, and
Chinese. The 8th Dynasty took the Chinese title Sunny (Yuan) and
ruled their empire as the Chinese monarchs from 1279 to 1368. The reign of
Kublai Khan was the highest point of Mongol power. Communication and trading
routes were vastly improved and secured. The traffic from West to East increased
correspondingly. Missionaries and traders came to China from Western Europe,
bringing new ideas, techniques, foods, and medicines. In his writings, the
Venetian merchant Marco Polo vividly portrayed the splendor of the Mongol Empire
to the West.
Meanwhile, discontent was growing within the central bureaucracy. The civil
bureaucrats, the proponents of the Skilful Master’s ideology, resented the
Mongolian military bureaucrats, who were proponents of the legalistic policies
and were bigots, chauvinists, and nationalists – they openly spoke against the
Chinese holding important offices. The inner tensions of the bureaucracy were
mounted by the outer tensions with the middle and lower classes, which were
alienated by the galloping inflation and oppressive taxes. In the 1330s and
‘40s, severe flooding of the Yellow River prompted crop failure and famine.
Uprisings occurred in almost every province. By the middle of the 14th
century, several major rebel leaders had emerged, and a proponent of the
Knowledgeable One’s ideology, a former monk, Chu Yuan-chang succeeded in
extending his power throughout the valley of the Old-Fellow River. In 1371,
while Mongol military bureaucrats were busy with their internal rivalries, the
rebel army marched north and seized Peking. The 8th Dynasty, as a
Chinese Dynasty, ceased to exist and the Mongols withdrew to their base in
Mongolia.
Founded by Chu, the 9th (Ming) Dynasty (1368-1644) established its
capital at Nanjing and revived the characteristically Chinese bureaucracy, which
existed under the early 6th and 7th Dynasties. The civil
bureaucracy gained supremacy in the governmental apparatus and the
administration of justice was reformed. The central bureaucrats directed the
Chinese’ efforts to extend the Great Wall and to improve the Grand Canal. They
patronized cultural institutions – literature and arts were flowering, new
schools were founding. The empire was divided into 15 provinces, most of which
still bear their original names. Three commissioners (finances, military, and
judicial) supervised each province. The financial commissioner headed the
central bureaucratic apparatus and was directly under the emperor; in the last
years of the 9th Dynasty, the forth person was appointed to supervise
those three commissioners.
The early 9th Dynasty reestablished the system of tributary relations
by which the neighboring states acknowledged the power of China and sent
periodic tribute to the emperor’s court. During the first quarter of the 15th
century, the Mongolian tribes were decisively defeated, and the capital was
moved again into Peking. Chinese naval expeditions revealed the power of the 9th
Dynasty throughout Southeast Asia and India. In these years, maritime relations
were initiated between the Western world and China. The Portuguese arrived
first, in 1514. By 1557, they had acquired a trading station at Macao. After
1570, trade began between China and Spanish settlements in the Philippines.
However, from the middle of the 15th century, the power of the 9th
Dynasty began to decline. The quality of the imperial leadership deteriorated
and the court eunuchs came to exercise great control over the central
bureaucracy, fostering discontent and factionalism among the bureaucrats. The
costly defense programs (directed to stop the raids of the Mongols and the
Japanese pirates who ravaged the southeast coast throughout the 16th
century) depleted the imperial human and material resources. A seven-year
campaign against the Japanese troops in Korea during the 1590s devastated the 9th
Dynasty. In 1619, the Dutch settled in Taiwan and took possession of the nearby
Pescadores. Meanwhile, in the latter half of the 16th century, Jesuit
missionaries arrived in China and began to disseminate the Western secular
knowledge and Christianity.
The downfall of the 9th Dynasty was brought by a rebellion originated
in Shaanxi province as a response to the inability of the central bureaucracy to
provide relief in a time of famine and unemployment. When the rebels reached
Peking in 1644, the best governmental troops were deployed at the Great Wall,
guarding against invasion of the Manchu, a northeastern nomadic tribe. The
emperor decided to accept the aid of the Manchus to drive the rebels from the
capital. When the rebels were defeated, the Manchus refused to leave Peking,
forcing the 9th Dynasty to withdraw to South China, where they
attempted, unsuccessfully, to reestablish their regime.
Meanwhile, the Manchus established the 10th (Ching) Dynasty and ruled
China from 1644 to 1912. The bureaucratic organization of the 10th
Dynasty was based on the pattern of the previous administration; it was highly
centralized in its early period and was decentralized in its late period. A new
institution, the Grand Council, headed the central bureaucracy. The Council was
directly responsible before the emperor. The chief bureaus in the capital had
both heads – a Chinese and a Manchu. The middle level and local bureaucracy and
the civil service examinations (that were based largely on knowledge of ideology
of the Skilful Master) were retained.
The 10th Dynasty’s firm rule led to unprecedented peace and
prosperity in China in the 18th century. Later, when the population
doubled and production was not expanded at an equal pace, the troubles began and
the 10th Dynasty had declined. The financial resources of the central
bureaucracy were depleted by the military bureaucracy, which stationed troops
throughout China and enervated the Chinese by generations of peacetime garrison
duty to such a degree that they were scarcely capable of bearing arms in their
own defense. Corruption among civil and military bureaucrats bloomed.
The 10th Dynasty resentfully accepted commercial relations with the
West in the late 18th century. Foreign trade was confined to the port
of Canton, and foreign merchants were required to conduct trade through a
limited number of Chinese merchants, known collectively as the free-traders (cohong);
that is how Hong-Kong got its name. China-British trade was the greatest.
Initially, the balance of trade was in China’s favor. The British merchants
purchased tea and made payments in silver. At that time, the West embraced
mercantilist’s doctrine, which stated that the wealth of a nation depends on the
quantity of the precious metals in the country, and therefore, the nation should
sell more and buy less. The British merchants tried to reverse the balance of
their trade and, during the 1780s introduced Indian opium to China. By 1800, the
opium market had mushroomed, and the balance of trade shifted in favor of
Britain. The increasing opium trade drained the Chinese silver, thus aggravating
the fiscal difficulties of the 10th Dynasty.
In the 19th century, the imperial bureaucracy rapidly deteriorated
under a steady increase of foreign pressures from Britain and Japan. The issue
of trade relations between China and Britain produced the first serious
conflict. The Brits were anxious to expand their trade contacts beyond the
restrictive limits imposed by the governmental monopoly at Canton. To accomplish
this expansion, they sought to develop diplomatic relations with the Chinese
bureaucrats similar to those that existed between sovereign and equal
bureaucracies in the West. China, with its long history of economic
self-sufficiency, was not interested in increased trade. International
relations, in the view of the Chinese bureaucrats, had to take the form of a
tributary system, with British envoys approaching the Chinese court as tribute
bearers. Moreover, the Chinese bureaucrats wished-to-halt the opium trade, which
was undermining the fiscal and moral basis of the Empire. In 1839, Chinese
bureaucrats confiscated and destroyed huge amounts of opium from British ships
in the harbor at Canton and applied severe pressures to the British trading
community in that city. The British refused to restrict further importation of
opium, and the Opium War broke out in late 1839.
The signing of the Treaty of Nanking in 1842 put final point
of the Opium War. The British bureaucrats sought the trade advantages for their
merchants; two years later, the French and the Americans extracted similar
treaties. Being under the gun, the 10th Dynasty obliged for
concessions dictated by the imperialistic Western bureaucrats. Implementation of
those commercial clauses regarding the expansion of trade fell short of the
expectations of the Western bureaucrats. Soon, the British and the French found
pretext (casus belli) to renew warfare and during the war of 1856-58, a
joint British-French expeditions penetrated to Peking and burned the emperor’s
Summer Palace. The Peking Conventions compelled the emperor to ratify the terms
of the earlier treaties.
These treaties, known in China as the unequal treaties, guided the Chinese
bureaucrats in their relations with the Western bureaucrats until the communist
bureaucrats took over China. They changed the course of Chinese social and
economic development and permanently handicapped the 10th Dynasty. By
their provisions, Chinese ports were opened to foreign trade, and Hong Kong and
Kowloon were ceded to Britain. All treaties included a most-favored-nation
clause, under which any privilege extended by China to one nation was
automatically extended to all other treaty nations. Eventually, the Western
bureaucrats concocted a network of foreign control over the entire Chinese
economic and political system. The treaties set the duty on goods imported to
China at a maximum five percent of value. This provision was supposedly designed
to eliminate the arbitrary imposition of excessive duties. In reality, it left
the Chinese bureaucrats unable to levy taxes on imports that would be sufficient
to protect domestic industries and to promote economic modernization. Thus,
China was turned from a self-sufficient country into a completely dependent one.
In the second half of the 19th century, the 10th Dynasty
attempted to restore benevolent bureaucratic apparatus, which would follow the
Skilful Master’s principles in solving domestic economic and social problems.
The 10th Dynasty would have liked to adopt the Western technology,
but only in order to strengthen the power of the central bureaucracy. They still
clung to the legalistic policies and did not let to expand the base of the
middle-class (free trade), because the latter would start to develop those
industries that were necessary for the masses. That is how you can get fast
return on your invested capital. However, the objective of the bureaucrats was
to develop modern military machine, to become on equal or even to surpass the
western bureaucrats and compel them to bring a tribute to the Chinese
bureaucrats. The objective of creating the bureaucracy that would be more
tolerant to the interests of the middle-class (in accord with the Skilful
Master’s ideology) was incompatible with the interests of the 10th
Dynasty bureaucracy to develop modern army. The 10th Dynasty
entrusted the leadership in the modernization program only to those bureaucrats,
who graduated from the Dynasty’s civil service examination system. These men did
not know how to unite the incompatibles; consequently, their efforts were
unsuccessful.
On the brink of the 20th century, a group of enlightened bureaucrats
had surrounded the susceptible Emperor Kuang Hsu (1871-1908). Prompted by the
urgency of the situation created by the new spheres of influence of the Western
bureaucrats, they instituted a reform program designed to modernize the Chinese
economic and political system by transforming it into a constitutional monarchy
and improving the educational system. This program struck at the entrenched
power of a clique of those high-ranking bureaucrats, who were appointed by
Dowager Empress Tzu Hsi. The empress and her clique, with the aid of loyal
military bureaucrats, seized the emperor and halted the reform movement. A
period of violent reaction swept the country. After a Western expeditionary
corpus had crushed the rebellion, the Empress realized the futility of her
reactionary policy. In 1902, the central bureaucracy adopted a new reform
program and made plans to establish a limited constitutional government on the
Japanese model. In 1905, the ancient civil service examinations were abandoned.
Shortly after, a proponent of the Skilful Master’ ideology,
Sun Yat-sen had initiated a revolutionary movement dedicated to establishing a
republican government – to create the non-hereditary bureaucracy that would
promote the interests of the middle and lower classes. During the first decade
of the 20th century, the revolutionaries formed a coalition of
overseas Chinese students and merchants and unified the domestic groups that
were dissatisfied with the 10th Dynasty rule. In middle of 1911,
uprisings occurred in protest against the railroad nationalization scheme, which
the central bureaucrats conceived as a mean to stabilize their broken finances.
Three months later, a rebellion broke out at Hankou in central China. The
revolutionary society led by Sun took control over the rebellion and spread it
to other provinces. The military bureaucracy, reorganized by the general Yuan
Shih-kai, was clearly superior to the rebel forces, but Yuan (Sunny) applied
only limited military pressure to the rebels, because the military bureaucrats
sought for positions in a new republican government for themselves. At the
beginning of 1912, Sun Yat-sen stepped down as the president of the movement in
order to give this post to Yuan Shih-kai. Consequently, the 10th
Dynasty ceased to exist, and a revolutionary assembly in Nanjing elected Yuan
the first president of the Republic of China.
The Chinese republican bureaucracy maintained a feeble existence until the
middle of the 20th century. Although a constitution was adopted and a
parliament convened in 1912, Yuan never allowed these bureaucracies to supersede
his personal control of the central bureaucracy, particularly the military one.
The newly formed Nationalist Party (Kuomintang), headed by Sun Yat-sen,
attempted to limit Yuan’s power, first, by parliamentary tactics and, then, by
an unsuccessful revolution in 1913. Yuan responded by dismissing the civil
bureaucracy (dismissing the parliament and outlawing the Nationalist Party) and
ruling through military bureaucracy. Sun Yat-sen took refuge in Japan. From 1923
until his death in 1925, Sun was recognized as the chief executive of the
Nationalist Party, which he restructured according to the Soviet Communist
system. Virtually, his authority was confined to Canton, where he was supported
by the middle and lower classes (shopkeepers, students, the factory workers, and
the low-ranking army officers). During his last years, he was trying to achieve
national reunification by persuading the leaders of the various bureaucratic
factions to abandon their personal ambitions. On the other hand, Yuan tried to
establish a new hereditary bureaucracy under his 11th would-be
dynasty and recreate China as a monarchical empire. However, he was compelled by
popular opposition to abandon his plans, and he died in 1916. His political
power passed to the provincial warlords, who had waged factional wars for more
than a decade.
During World War I, the Japanese bureaucrats sought to gain a supreme position
in China. In 1915, Japan presented China with the so-called Twenty-one Demands,
the terms of which would have reduced the Chinese bureaucrats to the virtual
low-ranking Japanese bureaucrats. The Chinese bureaucrats concocted own version
of the demands, agreeing, among other concessions, to the transfer of the German
holdings in Shandong province to the Japanese bureaucrats. The belated entry of
China into the war on the Allied side in 1917 was designed to gain a seat for
the Chinese bureaucrats at the peace table and a new chance to check the
ambitions of the Japanese bureaucrats. The Chinese bureaucrats expected that the
American bureaucrats (in accord with their Open Door Policy) would offer their
support. However, at Versailles, the American president withdrew his support of
the Chinese bureaucrats on the Shandong issue, in order to counter-balance the
Japanese bureaucrats’ withdrawal of their demand for a racial-equality clause in
the League of Nations Covenant. The American bureaucrats bitterly opposed this
provision because of the possibility of unlimited influx of cheap Oriental labor
and worsening the standard of living of the American middle-class. The indignant
Chinese delegation refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles.
The Chinese intellectuals (who in the previous decade had tried to find out a
system, among the western models and ideals, that would fit to China) were
crushed by what they considered the American betrayal at Versailles. When the
news reached China, an anti-Japanese protest demonstration (the May Fourth
Movement of 1919) erupted at Peking University and swept through the country. A
period of re-evaluation of ideas followed. From this re-evaluation, a clear
objective emerged – to get rid of China its imperialistic and militaristic
bureaucracy (that speaks different languages) and to reestablish the Chinese
bureaucracy as speaking one language; thus, the national unity of China would be
achieved. Disillusioned by the cynical, self-interest-seeking, Western
imperialist States, the Chinese middle-class and its intellectuals became
increasingly interested in the Soviet Union and in Marxist-Leninist thought. The
Chinese Communist party was organized in Shanghai in 1921. In 1923 Sun Yat-sen
agreed to accept Soviet advice in reorganizing the crumbling Nationalist party
and its feeble military bureaucracy, and to admit Communists to Nationalist
party membership. The three principles of Sun’s ideology were – Nationalism,
Democracy, and Socialism. These thundering abstractions were loaded with the
anti-imperialistic, anti-western propaganda and an idea of necessity of national
unity.
The rejuvenated Nationalist party, under the leadership of the military
bureaucracy with the general Chiang Kai-shek as its head, launched a military
expedition from its base in Canton in 1926. Chiang sought to reunify China under
the rule of the Nationalist party and get rid of the country its imperialistic
bureaucrats and warlords. However, before the Nationalist party completed the
nominal reunification of China early in 1928, Chiang conducted a bloody purge of
the Nationalist party’s Communist members, fearing them as double agents. From
then, he relied upon support from the upper class of large-scale land and
industry aristocrats and the foreign imperialistic bureaucrats.
The new central bureaucracy, established by the Nationalist party at Nanjing in
1928, was faced with three big problems. First, the center had actually
brought only five provinces under its control. The remainder of the country was
still governed by local warlords. Second, the central bureaucracy was
faced with an internal Communist rebellion in the early 1930s. The Chinese
Communists, after being purged from the Nationalist party, split into two
factions and went underground. One faction tried to instigate urban uprisings of
the middle and lower classes. The other (headed by Mao Zedong) took to the
countryside of central China, where it mobilized peasant support, formed a
peasant army, and set up several soviet-style local bureaucracies. The first
faction eventually joined Mao in central China. The third problem that
the central bureaucracy was faced with was the aggression of the Japanese
bureaucrats in Manchuria and northern China.
During the 1920s, the Japanese bureaucrats had moderated their policy toward the
Chinese bureaucrats. At the Washington Naval Conference of 1922, they had agreed
to return the former German holdings in Shandong to Chinese control. However,
after 1928, extremists of the Nationalists party clashed with Japanese
imperialistic bureaucrats over the control of the South Manchurian Railway. In
1931, the Japanese, under the pretext of an alleged nationalist bombing of the
railway, seized it and extended their military control over all Manchuria. The
following spring the Japanese transformed the three provinces of Manchuria into
the new state of Manchukuo and later made Henry Pu-yi, the last ruler of the 10th
Dynasty as a puppet-emperor of this "State". Early in 1933, eastern Inner
Mongolia was incorporated into Manchukuo.
In dealing with these three problems during the 1930s, the central bureaucrats
negotiated with the domestic warlords and temporized with the Japanese
bureaucrats, giving priority to the suppression of the Communist rebellion. Late
in 1934, they succeeded in dislodging the Red Army from its base in central
China, but the Communists fought their way across China to the west and then
north on the so-called Long March to Shaanxi province. By 1936, they had
established a new base in the northwest. As the Japanese bureaucrats intensified
their pressure, the popular resistance of the Chinese mounted.
In 1937, the Nationalists and Communists bureaucrats stopped fighting among
selves and united against the Japanese bureaucrats. The full-scale war between
them began after a skirmish at the Marco Polo Bridge near Peking. By 1938, the
Japanese military bureaucrats had seized control of most of east valleys of the
Yellow and Old-Fellow rivers, and the area around Canton on the southeast coast.
The Nationalist party moved its capital and most of its army inland to Chonqing,
in the southwestern province of Sichuan.
During World War II, the bureaucrats of the Nationalist party suffered serious
military and financial difficulties while the Communists (with their
headquarters at Yanan) significantly expanded their territorial bases and party
membership. After serious losses of human and material resources during the
battle for eastern China in 1937-38, inadequately trained recruits compensated
the Nationalists’ military ‘software’. The restoration of the ‘hardware’ of
their army had to be delayed until 1945, when the first large-scale shipments of
American military equipment reached the Nationalist bureaucrats. After the
losses in 1938, the leadership of the Nationalists was weakened by factionalism.
These problems were aggravated by a severe inflation that began in 1939, when
the Nationalist bureaucrats (deprived from their main sources of income – the
Japanese-occupied sector of eastern China) turned to the printing presses to
finance the mounting costs of wartime operations. Despite substantial American
financial aid, the inflation worsened, with a consequent growth of corruption
among the military and civil bureaucrats and alienation of the middle and lower
classes.
Meanwhile, the Communists sat tight in the rural areas behind the Japanese
lines. They skillfully organized the peasantry in their support and beefed up
the ranks of the bureaucracy of their party and the Red Army. Unity and
organizational discipline were maintained throughout a vigorous campaign of
Communist propaganda. Large stockpiles of captured Japanese weapons and
ammunition were turned over to the Chinese Communists by the Soviet army that
occupied Manchuria after the Soviet bureaucrats plunged into the war with the
Japanese bureaucrats in the middle of 1945. That is why the Communists
bureaucrats emerged from World War II better disciplined and equipped, and a far
larger than the Nationalist bureaucrats.
The small conflicts between the Nationalist and Communist bureaucrats quickly
converged into a full-scale civil war, and all hope of peaceful solution
disappeared. In 1948, the Communist military bureaucrats took advantage of the
weak Nationalists and, in the middle of 1949 the Nationalist bureaucracy
collapsed and took refuge on the island of Taiwan.
The Communists organized the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference,
a constituent body of 662 members, which adopted a set of guiding principles
(so-called Organic Laws) for governing the country. In essence, the Communist
principles did not differ from the Nationalist principles. The Communists also
wanted the national unity under one language-speaking bureaucracy –
Nationalism; however, their earlier (Marxist) interpretation of the word
‘nation’ was that the whole world should be a nation. Later, they returned the
Nationalists’ interpretation of the word ‘nation’. They also wanted the creative
activity of the masses – Democracy, but this activity should be
controlled by the Communist bureaucrats – Socialism.
In essence, the Communists bureaucrats returned to the legalism of the upper
class and dismantled the Skilful Master’s ideology of the Nationalists. Now we
will look how they implemented their principles.
The conference elected the Central People’s Government Council, which was
supposed to serve as the supreme policymaking organ of the State while the
Conference was not in session. Mao Zedong, as the chairman of the Communist
party, reserved for himself the post of the chairman of the Council – thus, the
actual head of the new bureaucracy became its nominal head. This camouflage was
very important to the communist bureaucrats to conceal for a while their
identity and to pretend that their left hand does not know what their right hand
is doing.
The Council (in accordance with the delegated by the Conference rights) set up
the various organs of the central and local bureaucracies. At the national
level, the Government Administrative Council headed by Zhou Enlai performed both
the legislative and executive functions of the bureaucracy. Subordinate to the
Administrative Council was more than 30 ministries and commissions responsible
for the control of various aspects of the people’s activities. Thus, the
communist bureaucrats, proclaiming themselves the People’s Republic of China,
organized themselves as a Republican Empire in 1949.
In the first years of the Chinese Republic, the Communist bureaucrats resorted
to terror, in order to eliminate all actual and potential opposition. In 1951,
the Communist bureaucrats stated that between October 1949 and October 1950,
more than 1 million so-called counter-revolutionaries were executed. Some
foreigners estimated that actually 2 million people were slaughtered by the
Communist bureaucrats in this purge.
The second task of the Communists was to reconstruct the economy, which had been
disrupted by decades of the domestic warfare. They took severe measures to
restore communications, check inflation, and reestablish the order necessary for
the development of the economy. Land reform was started in 1950 and was followed
by the formation of mutual-aid teams, cooperatives, and collective farms. The
Communists’ economic policy consisted of the systematic organization of the
individual farmers into the agricultural communities in order to ease the
control for the production and distribution of the produce. The efficiency of
the bureaucratic control of the agricultural production was necessary to channel
the agricultural surplus for the creation of the heavy industry that was needed
to forge the modern military equipment. The private industry was gradually
brought under joint state-private ownership for the same purpose. The Communist
bureaucratic control over the private industry was accomplished through a series
of programs involving state seizure of a controlling interest, through
intimidation of some private owners, and through fixed compensatory payment to
those of them in whose expertise the Communist bureaucrats still needed.
In 1953, after the Communist bureaucrats took control over most localities, they
initiated the election of people’s congresses at the local level. These, in
their turn, elected congresses at the higher administrative level, and so forth
to the imperial level. A hierarchy of elected congresses was completed in 1954
with the election of the National People’s Congress, which consisted of several
thousands congresspersons and was clearly unworkable. Consequently, this
Congress approved without any pondering the draft constitution submitted by the
Central Committee of the Communist party.
The 1954 constitution, which replaced the Organic Laws of 1949 as the basic law
of the land, confirmed the domination of the Chinese Communist bureaucracy and
introduced a new structural change designed to deeper the centralize
bureaucratic control.
The basic policy of the Communist bureaucracy was to transform China into a
socialist society, i.e., the legalists’ ideal society where every minutest
activity of an individual would be prescribed by the ruling bureaucracy. To this
end, Marxist-Leninist education and propaganda were employed extensively. Youths
were directed to look at the leaders of the Communist party and their State
rather than to own families for leadership and security. Women were promised a
position of equality by new marriage laws that banned polygamy, sale of
children, and interference with the remarriage of widows; the Communists
promised women equal rights with respect to employment, ownership of property,
and divorce. The non-communist-legalist ideologies were strictly controlled;
foreign missionaries were forced to leave; and Chinese clerical bureaucrats, who
were collaborating with the Communists, were placed over the clerical
bureaucracies of different denominations. Intellectuals were subjected to a
specialized program of thought reform directed toward eradicating anti-Communist
ideas.
Coming to national control, the Communist bureaucrats attempted to take control
over the areas they considered to be within the "historic" boundaries of China.
In 1950, Chinese Communist military bureaucrats invaded Tibet and forced the
Tibetans to accept the control of the Chinese bureaucracy. In 1954, when the
military-industrial-complex (MIC) became working and replenished the modern
military equipment, Zhou Enlai officially declared that the liberation of Taiwan
from the Nationalist bureaucrats was one of the principal Communist objectives.
Chiang Kai-shek, in his turn, had asserted from time to time the intention of
his bureaucracy to re-conquer the mainland, but having not much the human and
material resources, his promises turned out to be empty threats. However,
Taiwan, under the protective American umbrella, is still the pain in the
Communist bureaucrats’ necks.
During the 1950s, the Chinese Communists’ foreign policy reflected the Marxist
interpretation of the word ‘nation’; consequently, China and the Soviet Union
signed a treaty of friendship and alliance. The Soviet Communist bureaucrats
made some concessions to the Chinese Communist bureaucrats, including the
abrogation of Soviet privileges in Manchuria. In return, during the Korean War,
the Chinese Communist bureaucrats aided the North Korean Communist bureaucrats
against the American bureaucrats. After a truce was concluded in 1953, the
Chinese accelerated the flow of military aid to Communist insurgents fighting
the French bureaucrats in Vietnam.
The first five-year plan initiated in 1953 and carried out with the assistance
of the Soviet Communist bureaucrats emphasized the military-industrial-complex
(MIC) at the expense of the consumer-producing industries. The slogan of the
Communist plan was to materialize the Great Leap Forward. Soviet aid and the
enthusiasm of the lower class contributed greatly to the early success of the
modernization-program. However, later, the rigid control (imposed on the economy
by the Communist bureaucrats in order to increase agricultural production,
restrict consumption, and speed up industrialization) led to the development of
skepticism in the masses. Thus, the open and concealed resistance to the regime
has been born in the lower class. The economy became badly disorganized, and
industrial production dropped by 50 percent in 1959-1962.
The situation became worse in 1960 when the Soviet bureaucrats withdrew their
aid because the Soviet economy was under the same pressure – the Soviet MIC
(military-industrial-complex) consumed nearly 2/3 of their GNP (Gross National
Product). Thus, the Soviet Communist bureaucrats, unable to overpower the
Western bureaucrats, had to move toward peaceful coexistence with the latter.
The situation resulted in the tensions between the two leading Communist
bureaucracies. Their alliance deteriorated rapidly and, in 1962, the Chinese
Communists openly condemned the Soviet Communists for withdrawing their missiles
from Cuba. The Chinese Communist bureaucrats still maintained the basic Marxist
goal of a worldly bureaucracy and considered the aggression and revolution as
the only means to achieve this goal and overpower the nationalistic Western
bureaucracies. The Chinese leader Mao Zedong accused Soviet leader Nikita
Khrushchev of modern revisionism and of the betrayal of the Marxist-Leninist
ideals. Consequently, the Soviet Communists no longer helped to modernize the
Chinese MIC. The Chinese bureaucrats began to compete openly with the Soviet
bureaucrats for the leadership in the Communist bloc and, consequently, returned
to the Nationalists’ interpretation of the word ‘nation’ and embarked on the
expansionistic course.
In 1962, when Chinese troops advanced across the Indian borders, the aggression
lowered the prestige of the Chinese Communists among the neutral national
bureaucracies of Asia and Africa. The active part played by Chinese embassy
bureaucrats in instigating a Communist revolution in Indonesia, resulted in
their expulsion from Indonesia in 1965. Consequently, the large Chinese
population abroad (Diaspora) felt the impact of the failure of the Chinese
bureaucracy, suffering enormous loss of life and property. Burma and Cambodia,
although remaining on friendly terms with China, continued their close relations
with the Soviet Union. Only Albania remained an indisputable ally of China.
As the Communist bureaucrats tried to modernize the Chinese MIC, differences
appeared between their leaders and factionalism began to flower. Every ideology
tends to split when it applies to different classes. Mao and his adherents
favored a pure Marxist-legalist ideology, with the goal of a worldly
bureaucracy. However, some bureaucrats, who came into the Communist party from
the literate middle-class (intellectuals and professional people), saw the
Skillful Master’s ideology as a more rational and moderate approach, which would
lead to the creation of an efficient and productive Chinese society. In 1956,
Mao, concerned over his inability to brainwash the middle-class, launched a
campaign of extermination of the anti-Communist ideas under the slogan – "let a
hundred flowers bloom, let a hundred schools of thought contend". The Chinese
intellectuals were urged to speak out their complaints so that the Communist
bureaucrats might identify and resolve their problems. Thus, Mao propagated the
campaign of free criticism of all bureaucratic policies. Of course, not only the
"bad" ideas were supposed to be exterminated, but also their proprietors;
consequently, the Communist secret service was at work and piled files on those
dissidents who openly criticized the Communist bureaucrats. Following arrests
and convictions of the dissidents in 1957 re-imposed the strict control of the
freedom of expression.
Thereafter, the division between the Maoists-legalists and the moderates (the
proponents of the Skillful Master’s ideology) widened. The Maoists’ influence
was further diminished by the economic failures of the ‘Great Leap Forward’
policy. In 1959, Mao retired as the head of the State bureaucracy; however, he
continued to be the head of the Communist party bureaucracy. The moderates,
headed by Liu Shaoqi, became too independent. Thus, in 1966, Mao and his
supporters launched the so-called Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution to
eradicate the remains of so-called bourgeois ideas and customs and to
recapture the revolutionary zeal of the previous generation of the middle and
lower classes. From German, burg means ‘walled city’ and bourgeoisie
meant just ‘citizens’, particularly the middle class. When the Communists cry
foul against bourgeoisie, you now know who is actually under their
metaphorical fire.
Students calling themselves Red Guards, joined by the illiterate youth of the
lower class, took to the streets in pro-Maoist, sometimes violent,
demonstrations. The Maoists made the moderate state bureaucrats and
intellectuals their primary targets. Many high-ranking bureaucrats, including
head of State, Liu, were expelled from the Communist party and, consequently,
were deprived of their positions in the State bureaucracy.
During the 1967-1968 bloody purge of the moderates, the Communist bureaucracy
had weakened. In some provinces of China, the "rebellions" that were organized
by the Maoist civil bureaucrats, slipped into anarchy. Therefore, the military
bureaucracy, led by the Maoist Lin Biao, had to restore order. The students were
sent back to schools or to labor camps in remote areas.
The so-called Cultural Revolution had an adverse effect on the foreign relations
of the Chinese Communists. The Red Guards inspired riots in Hong Kong, causing
economic and social chaos there. Pro-Maoist propaganda and agitation in the
overseas Chinese Diaspora strained relations with many states, especially with
the Soviet Union. Tension between these two empires mounted and the Maoists
accused the Soviet bureaucrats of having an imperialistic policy after the
Communist-bloc occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1968, organized by the Soviet
Communist bureaucrats. In 1969, the Maoists attacked the Soviet border guards on
the Ussuri River in Manchuria and created an explosive situation between the two
Communist bureaucracies.
However, Mao emerged victorious from his Cultural Revolution
and was greatly honored by the lower class. The Communist bureaucrats allowed
the remaining intellectuals to speak out more freely; however, the former did
not allow the latter to organize formally around any ideology. However, to
improve the economy, the Communist bureaucrats were compelled to promote the
knowledgeable moderates in high-ranking positions. By 1973, it became clear to
the Maoists that, to protect own authority, they needed a new thought-reform
campaign, which would attack the ideology of the Skillful Master. After this
campaign, Mao’s extreme legalism was reflected in a new national constitution of
1975. Nevertheless, the moderate Deng Xiaoping was named deputy to the Premier
Minister Zhou.
During the 1970s, foreign relations of the Chinese Communist bureaucrats
improved. In 1971, they were admitted to the UN, replacing the Nationalist
bureaucrats of Taiwan. In 1972, the American bureaucrats agreed to withdraw
their troops from Taiwan. The Communist bureaucrats established diplomatic
relations with the Japanese bureaucrats.
Chairman of Party bureaucracy Mao and Premier of State bureaucracy Zhou both
died in 1976 and a struggle for power between the moderates and the
extremist-legalists began again. At the beginning, the legalists took advantage
by preventing the moderate Deng Xiaoping from being chosen Premier and then
having him ousted from his other bureaucratic posts. As a compromise, Hua
Guofeng, a neutral bureaucrat without close ties to either faction, became
Premier. During Hua’s rule, the need for economic progress necessitated the
policies of the moderates. Consolidating their position, the moderates
implemented Mao’s tactic of internal struggle and launched a campaign against of
the so-called Gang of Four (Mao’s widow - Jiang Qing, and three other
extremist-legalists). These four were arrested and charged with various crimes
and expelled from the Communist party. Then, Hua succeed Mao as the party
chairman. He concentrated on stabilizing politics and fostering economic
development. To carry out this program he appointed the moderates to high
positions. In 1977, a moderate, Deng, was reinstated as first deputy premier and
in his other posts.
The emphasis on the moderate policies was reflected in the 5th
National People’s Congress of 1978. As these internal adjustments were being
made, relations with Vietnam worsened. The influence of the Soviet Communist
bureaucrats on the Vietnamese Communist bureaucrats was growing, and the Chinese
minority in Vietnam felt most acutely the policy of closing down private
businesses in the recently captured Saigon. The result was an exodus of ethnic
Chinese who streamed into southern China, clogging its welfare facilities; by
1979, Chinese bureaucrats were compelled to close their borders. When later
Vietnamese bureaucrats invaded Cambodia and toppled the Cambodian bureaucrats,
who were closely collaborated with the Chinese Communist bureaucrats, then, the
latter retaliated and sent their troops into Vietnam. Although these troops were
withdrawn in 1980, the Vietnamese bureaucrats now looked on their remaining
Chinese minority as the fifth column and pressured them to leave. Hundreds of
thousands fled by sea, often in overloaded, rickety boats. Many of them reached
safety in other countries, but some perished in the sea.
To counteract the Soviet-Vietnamese encirclement, the Chinese bureaucrats
intensified their foreign contacts. In 1979, they established full diplomatic
relations and made some trade agreements with the American, Japanese, and
West-European bureaucrats.
During the 1980s, the moderates became dominant in the Chinese party and state
bureaucracies. Deng Xiaoping, retaining behind-the-scenes, influenced the
internal and external policies. Eager to expand trade and industry by attracting
foreign investment, the moderate bureaucrats took a far less dogmatic stance on
economic policy than on questions of the human rights.
In 1980, Hua Guofeng resigned the premiership and the moderate Zhao Ziyang, a
Deng supporter, succeeded him. In 1981, after a trial of the Gang of Four,
accompanying with extensive propaganda of the moderates, the four "gang" members
were convicted and imprisoned. Then, another moderate and ally of Deng, Hu
Yaobang, replaced Hua as the top dog of the Communist party bureaucracy. A new
state constitution and a new Communist party charter were adopted in 1982. The
former revived the largely ceremonial office of president (previously state
chairman), which Mao had abolished in 1968.
In 1987, a wave of student demonstrations, calling for
increased democratization and freedom of expression, rolled throughout China. Hu
Yaobang was forced to resign and Zhao Ziyang became acting head of the Communist
party bureaucracy. Hu’s death in 1989 sparked a new wave of pro-middle-class and
pro-democracy demonstrations, which surged in May when the head of the Soviet
(military and civil) Communist (clerical) bureaucrats, Mikhail Gorbachev visited
Peking to end the 30-year tensions between the two bureaucracies of the same
Communist ideology. The protesters occupied Tienanmen Square (the central square
of Peking) until the legalist military bureaucrats called in armored troops,
stormed the city center, and killed nearly 400 students. In the following
political crackdown, many thousands dissidents were thrown into prisons, the
moderate Zhao Ziyang was dethroned, and the legalist Jiang Zemin became the head
of the Communist bureaucracy. In 1993, the 8th National People’s
Congress rubber-stamped Jiang as the head of the State bureaucracy.
However, the necessity of economic progress calls for a moderate approach and a
decentralized bureaucracy. Recently, under the light of the TV cameras, the head
of the Chinese bureaucracy even dared to argue with the head of the American
bureaucracy about the problems of the human rights. More important, the
Communist bureaucrats have not dared to dismantle completely the Hong-Kong
free-trade system after they acquired formal control over it. The incorporation
of the Hong-Kong moderate bureaucracy into the rigid structure of the
Communist-legalist bureaucracy will eventually lead to domination of the
middle-class and its moderate bureaucracy in the Chinese society. Although the
Communists attempted to create the non-hereditary bureaucracy, they created it
only formally. In essence, every member of the Central Committee of the
Communist party has tried to promote his relatives to high-ranking position in
the party and state bureaucracy based not on the relatives’ merits, but on their
loyalty to them. Thus, they created the tribal-faction, bloodthirsty dragon,
which will ultimately topple and devour the inherited communistic bureaucracy.
Meso-America is the term used to describe the ancient
settlements of Mexico and Central America. Urban culture arose in the Americas
much later than in the Middle East. Whether Native Americans reinvented the
tools of the epoch of the agricultural State, such as farming and writing, or
whether they were brought from the Oriental societies is not clear. The earliest
elaborate agricultural State, known in the Americas is that of the Olmec of
central Mexico. The Olmec society lived in the lowlands (the present-day
Veracruz and Tabasco States of Mexico) from about 16th century BC.
They left artifacts ranging from tiny jade carvings to huge monuments such as
the volcanic rock statues at San Lorenzo. These monuments suggest the existence
of an organized and diverse society with leaders who could command the work of
thousands of artisans and laborers. Other early city-states in the Americas
include the Chavin of Peru, the Chono of Chile, the Tehuelche of Argentina, the
Tupians of Brazil, and the Inca of Peru. However, the only consistent historical
data we have today is that one of the Meso-American cultures.
The Olmecs were a Meso-American people who established the region’s first
horticultural villages. They lived along the central coast of the Gulf of
Mexico, just west of the Yucatan Peninsula in the swampy basin of the jungle
rivers of the present-day Mexican states of Vera Cruz and Tabasco. Over time,
they extended their influence through the highlands of Mexico, the Valley of
Mexico, known as the Anahuac, Oaxaca, and westwards to Guerrero. The Olmecs were
a loose confederation of villages and towns that flourished between 16th
and 10th centuries BC; after that it was declining until the Mayans
overrun it in 600 BC.
The Olmecs were the first Americans, who used stone as
architectural and sculptural material, even though it had to be hewed in the
Tuxtla Mountains (about 100 km from the nearest agriculturally useable valley).
Their colossal stone heads of males (about 2.7-m high) can be seen today, in the
city of Villahermosa. Their writing, a numerical system, was the precursor of
Meso-American writing. The Olmec urban culture established own patterns that
influenced its successors for centuries to come.
Present-day San Lorenzo was the place of their oldest known fortified town,
which the Mayan nomads destroyed in around 900 BC. During the transitional Dark
Age the new upper class replaced the old tribal allegiance and a new city was
built (near present-day La Venta), in an axial pattern that influenced urban
development in Central America for centuries. A mounded earthen pyramid (about
30-m high) was erected; it was the center of a complex of temples and plazas and
it is considered as one of the earliest cultural centers in Meso-America.
Starting from the 9th century BC, the
Mayan group of related nomadic tribes forced their influence on the territory of
the present-day Mexican states of Veracruz, Yucatan, Campeche, Tabasco, and
Chiapas, and also in the greater part of Guatemala and in parts of Belize and
Honduras. The Maya (who occupied the Yucatan Peninsula) is the best-known tribe
of that loose confederation of the nomadic tribes, which conquered the
horticultural Olmecs; that is why the entire group of conquerors is named after
them. Among the other important tribes was the Huastec (from whom the later
Aztecs took their name) of northern Veracruz; the Tzental of Tabasco and
Chiapas; the Chol of Chiapas; the Quiche, Cakchiquel, Pokonchi, and Pokomam of
the Guatemalan highlands; and the Chorti of eastern Guatemala and western
Honduras. With the exception of the Huastec, these tribes had been occupying the
compact and contiguous territory. They were all part of a confederation of the
nomadic tribes, who conquered the Olmec horticultural confederation and
established themselves as the Mayan upper class in between 9th and 6th
centuries BC.
The newcomers were short, dark, broad-headed, and muscular. The Mayans
established the agricultural class society that formed its economical base on
the crop of maize. Cotton, beans, squash, manioc, and cacao were also grown. The
techniques of spinning, dyeing, and weaving cotton were highly perfected. The
Mayan conquerors brought into the newly established society the knowledge of
domesticating dogs and turkeys. However, they had no knowledge of how to use the
draft animals and, correspondingly, they had no wheeled vehicles.
The Mayan middle and lower classes produced fine pottery.
Cacao beans and copper bells were used as units of exchange. Copper was also
used for ornamental purposes, as were gold, silver, jade, shell, and colorful
plumage (the latter later become the Aztecs’ obsession). However, metal tools
were still unknown. The Mayan tribes were ruled by hereditary chiefs who were
descended in the male line and who delegated authority over village communities
to the cities’ chieftain-kings (who, in their turn, were in loose confederation
with each other). The confederation of the chieftain-kings was considered as the
primary proprietor of the territory and the people; thus, these chieftain-kings
parceled the land to the village chiefs, who parceled it out to the commoners.
The Mayan urban culture produced a remarkable
architecture, of which great ruins remain at a large number of places, including
Palenque, Uxmal, Mayapan, Copan, Tikal, Uaxactun, and Chichen Itza. These sites
were vast centers for religious ceremonies. The usual plan consisted of a number
of pyramidal mounds, often surmounted by temples or other buildings, grouped
around open plazas. The pyramids, built in successive steps, were faced with cut
stone blocks and generally had a steep stairway built into one or more of their
sides.
The substructure of the pyramids was usually made of earth
and rubble, but sometimes it was made of mortared stone blocks. The typical
construction consisted of a core of rubble or broken limestone mixed with
mortar, and then faced with finished stones or stucco (a form of
plasterwork used as a coating on interiors and exteriors of buildings, usually
composed of concrete, gypsum, and sand). The stone walls were also frequently
laid without mortar. Wood was used for door lintels and for sculpture.
The arch was not known, but its effect was approximated in roofing buildings by
making the upper layers of stone of two parallel walls approach each other in
successive projections until they met overhead. This system produced narrow and
dark interiors because they required very heavy walls, which could sustain rare,
small, and narrow windows. Therefore, the interiors and exteriors were painted
in bright colors. Because little or nothing could be done with the contemporary
technique of illumination to improve the impression from the interiors, most of
the attention was directed to the exteriors, which were lavishly decorated with
painted sculpture, carved lintels, stucco moldings, and stone mosaics. The
decorations were arranged in wide friezes contrasting with bands of plain
masonry.
Commoners’ dwellings, by form, probably resembled the
adobe (a Spanish word for sun-dried clay bricks and for a structure that is
built from such bricks) and the skin-, snow-, or palm-leaf-huts seen today among
Mongolian, Eskimo, and Mayan descendants.
In 1952, at Palenque, archeologists discovered the
sarcophagus of Pacal, a Mayan ruler, who lived from 603 to 683 AD, and ruled
from 615 until his death. The glyphs of the sarcophagus provided the scholars
with a detailed Mayan dynastic history. Inside the sarcophagus the corpus of
Pacal, whose face was covered by a life-sized mosaic mask of jade.
Mother-of-pearl discs served as ear-spools, several necklaces of tubular jade
beads garlanded the chest, and the fingers were decorated with jade rings. Each
hand and mouth held a large jade, and two jade figurines lay beside the corpse.
One of the figurines represented the sun god. It implied that the king would
rise again like the sun in the east after his journey through the Otherworld.
Such a custom was documented for the Maya, Aztecs, and Chinese.
In 1946, archeologists discovered the murals (wall
paintings) among the ruins of Bonampak. These murals reflected the most
important events in the Mayan life in the late 8th century AD, just
before their confederation collapsed and many cities were captured by the
Tolmecs. The Bonampak murals narrate a story of a successful battle, its
aftermath, and the celebration of the victory. The miserable naked captives
plead for life to the great lord Chaan-muan, the ruler of Bonampak, who is
arrayed in a jaguar-skin battle jacket and sandals, and surrounded by his
lieutenants and priests. One of the spectators is the ruler's principal wife,
who came for celebration from Yaxchilan (as the glyphic text narrates). She is
wearing a white gown and red robe, and her left-hand waves with a Chinese
folding screen-fan.
When the Mayan nomads conquered the Olmecs and created the
Mayan agricultural class society, their upper class developed a method of
hieroglyphic notation to record their material and spiritual needs (their
economy, politics, and religion). Images of their history and rituals were
carved and painted on Stella (stone slabs or pillars), on lintels, on stairways,
and sarcophagi. Records were also painted in hieroglyphs and preserved in books
of folded sheets of paper made from the fibers of the maguey plant. After
conquering the Meso-America, the Spanish upper class tried hard to eradicate the
Mayan upper class writings and customs. Thus, the Spanish inquisitors nearly
succeeded in that task. Only three examples of these books have been preserved:
the Codex Dresdensis, which is presently in Dresden; the Perez Codex, which is
now in Paris; and the Codex Tro-Cortezianus, which is now in Madrid.
The Mayan clerical bureaucrats used these books as their textbooks, as almanacs
that contained such topics as agriculture, weather, disease, hunting, and
astronomy. The Mayan prognostications were based on a calendar system so
sophisticated that it extended for 5 billions years ago, nearly the same as the
contemporary scientists estimate the age of the earth.
Taking into consideration the Mayan dwellings, burial
customs, some of their luxurious things, and the knowledge of pottery- and
papermaking, I am dare to support the theory that the Mayan nomads derived from
the Manchurian nomads. The latter probably crossed over the Bering Strait in the
deer- or doggy-sleds pursuing the deer-herds somewhere between four and three
millennia ago. Some of them settled on the new continent and multiplied; the
excess of he population moved south, thus colonizing the Americas. The Chukchi
of northeast Siberia and Eskimos of Alaska also did not know the wheel until
recently, because they have 8-9 winter-months in a year, and the sled is more
convenient to use on the snowy- or marshy ground.
Although the descendants of the Maya (about six million people that live
presently in Yucatan peninsula, Guatemala, and Honduras) are mostly Catholics,
they speak various Mayan dialects and they have a distinctive culture. Their
relationship with the Mexican, Guatemalan, and Honduran upper classes are very
strained and full of violence and bloodshed. As soon as among them appear the
middle-class intellectuals, you can hear from your TV sets about the
death-squads, which the extremists of the Mexican, Guatemalan, and Honduran
upper classes (as their predecessors-inquisitors did) hire the hangmen to
exterminate the knowledge among the Mayan descendants about their noble past.
Despite of, or better say, because of the upper class violent policy toward
them, which directed to keep them in the subservient state, the Mayan
descendants have helped the decipherers of Mayan writings to find the key to
understanding the Mayan ancient writings. Although the Mexican or Guatemalan
Maya do not understand the glyphs of their previous upper class, they still use
vocabulary that lies behind many of those glyphs.
However, the linguistic situation is very complex, because the Mayan language
consists of more than 30 spoken dialects, as the Mayan confederation consisted
of more than 30 tribes. The more circulated of these dialects are Cholan,
Yucatec, and Huastec. However, there are several others of closely affiliated
dialects, including those of the Aguacatec, Cakchiquel, Chanabal, Chontal,
Chorti, Chuj, Ixil, Jacaltec, Kekchi, Mam, Motozintlec, Pokomam, Pokonchi,
Quiche, Tzental, Tzotzil, Tzutuhil, and Uspantec. Some of these dialects are as
close as, say, Russian and Ukrainian or as English and Duch; and some are
different as Russian and Polish or as English and German. A principle difference
is hidden between Cholan and Yucatec. The very name of the latter is derived
from the Spaniards' mistake. When the conquistadors had asked the Mayans of the
Yucatan peninsula, "How do you call your land," the Mayans had answered,"Uic
athan," which means 'we do not understand you'. The monumental texts at Copan
and Palenque are in Cholan, while three surviving codices are in Yucatec.
Therefore, not all glyphs are deciphered yet.
As it turned out, the Mayan systems of writing were logographic and phonetic
syllabic. The Mayan numbers were deciphered first. Like the Hindus, the Maya
used the idea of place value. But where the Hindus have a place value that
increases from right to left in multiples of 10 (i.e., 1, 10, 100, 1000, etc.),
the Maya placed the value that increases from bottom to up in multiples of 20
(i.e., 1, 20, 400, 8000, etc.). Probably, the Maya took the combination of the
fingers and toes of a human being as their base value, whereas the Hindus took
only the fingers. The Mayan numerical system was more advanced than that of the
Babylonians, because the Maya understood the value of zero. They symbolized zero
as a shell, as if saying, 'the form means something, although the essence of it
has gone'. A dot stood for 1 and a bar -- for 5.
The Mayan priests determined their chronology with an elaborate calendar system.
The year began when the sun crossed the zenith on July 16th and
consisted of 365 days. The 364 days were divided into 28 weeks of 13 days each.
The New Year had begun on the 365th day. Moreover, 360 days of the
year were divided into 18 months, with 20 days in each. The additional 5 days,
called transitional, made (with 360 days) altogether a 'vague year'. The year
called "vague" because the Mayan priests ignored the extra quarter of a day in a
solar year. The series of weeks and the series of months both ran independently
from each other. However, they both started on the July 17th and
after every 260 days (that is 13´20) the week and the month began on the same
day (either on April 2nd or on April 3rd). Although highly
complex, the Mayan calendar was very accurate, and the Mayan clerical
bureaucracy was revered in the middle and lower classes for their knowledge of
timing to sow and to crop.
The Mayan religion centered about the worship of a large number of supreme
powers. Chac, a god of rain, was the most important of them. Among other
supreme deities were a creator god (Kukulcan, who was the precursor of
the Toltecs’ and Aztecs’ Quetzalcoatl) and a sky god, Itzamna. The Mayan
priests believed that the each heavenly power had complete control over certain
units of time and of all peoples’ activities during those periods.
For the lack of the material data, the origin of the Mayan society is highly
debatable and, therefore, depends on biases and prejudices of those scientists
who interpret the meager archaeological evidence. However, most of them agree
that the Mayan nomadic tribes began to take form as early as 1500 BC. At 1000
BC, the Mayans multiplied immensely and moved into the river-valleys. During the
1st Meso-American Dark Age (1000-600 BC), they established themselves
as the upper class among the Olmecs. After that, their urban life prospered for
nearly a millenium, and after the 2nd Dark Age (from 600 to 900 AD)
their urbanism declined and was diffused by the northern nomadic tribes of the
Toltecs, who became the new upper class.
However, the Maya left us Teotihuacan (a Mexican
archaeological site about 40-km northeast of Mexico City) that contains the
remains of the earliest city in the Western Hemisphere. Teotihuacan grew from a
small Olmec settlement to an important Mayan-Olmec city shortly before the
beginning of the new era and flourished until about the 7th century.
By its size and population, it can be compared with the Athens of the Classical
period (at its greatest extent, Teotihuacan covered about 21 sq. km and had a
population of close to 125,000). Its monuments include the Pyramid of the Sun
(one of the largest structures that was ever built by the pre-Hispanic
Americans), the Pyramid of the Moon, and the Avenue of the Dead (which is a
broad highway, flanked by ruins of temples). The people of Teotihuacan had close
contacts with the Mayan relatives of the Yucatan and Guatemala, and had an
important influence on later empire builders – the Aztecs.
Although some autonomy was preserved by the Mayan cities, during the
Post-Classic period (from 9th century to the 16th century,
when the Spaniards arrived into the Americas), the Mayan descendants played the
role of the middle and lower classes in the Toltec and Aztec societies on the
Yucatan peninsula. The first invaders, who came from the mountains that surround
the Mexico Valley, became the builders of the new Toltec society; and as such,
they were strongly influenced by the Mayan art styles. Chichen Itza and Mayapan
became their prominent cities. For a while the Toltec Confederation of the
city-states maintained peace, but after a period of revolutions and civil wars
their cities were abandoned. The Spaniards easily overcame the resistance of the
Aztecs and established themselves as the Mexican upper class because the
Toltec-Mayan middle and lower classes helped them. However, after the new upper
class was established and its policies toward the lower classes became the same
as those of the Aztecs, the Mayan descendants redirected their resistance. The
Mexican upper class did not subdue the last resistance of the Mayan descendants
until 1901. In the late 20th century the Aztec-Toltec-Mayan
descendants continued to make up the bulk of the middle and lower classes of the
rural population in those lands where they used to use to be the upper and
middle classes.
The Toltecs, following the example of the Mayans, started to build their empire
after their clergy lost power and the military bureaucrats took control of the
upper class. The Toltecs’ army used its superior force to dominate neighboring
societies. The Toltecs built their capital at Tula (sometimes called Tollan).
The ruins of this city, about 64 km north of Mexico City, include three
pyramidal temples. The largest of them, which is surmounted by 4.6-m columns in
the form of stylized human figures, is thought to be dedicated to the Plumed
Serpent (Quetzalcoatl), an ancient deity the Toltecs adopted from the
Mayans. According to legend, a rival Toltec deity, Tezcatlipoca, drove
Quetzalcoatl and his followers out of Tula around the 10th century.
They moved south and eventually developed the Toltec-Mayan city of Chichen Itza
into their capital and an important religious center.
The Toltec Empire declined in the 12th century, as the Chitimecs and
other nomads invaded the Central Valley and eventually sacked Tula. The Toltecs
in the south became the middle-class, and the Mayans and Olmecs became the lower
class of the new, Aztec dominated society.
The Aztecs were the nomadic Mayan tribe of Huastecs who had become dominant in
the central and southern Mexico from the 14th to the 16th
centuries. They are best known for the establishment of an empire that drew its
power on its ruthless military bureaucracy, which forced the neighboring
societies to pay heavy tributes and forced them to conduct religious sacrifices
of humans and animals. Their mythical northern homeland they called Azatlan;
sometimes they also called themselves the Mexica.
After the Mayan Confederation conquered the Olmecs (in between 10th
and 6th centuries BC), the Huastecs, as the late arrivals, were
allotted to occupy several valleys, and one of them was the swampy area on the
western side of Lake Texcoco, which is located in Mexico’s Central Valley. The
part of the Huastecs, who occupied this narrow piece of dry land, assumed the
name of the Aztecs. During the Toltec Empire, the Aztecs, as the members of the
Mayan confederation, were forced to pay heavy tributes.
That the Aztecs were able to reverse this disadvantage and to create a powerful
empire within two centuries was due in part to their belief in a legend.
According to this legend, they would establish a great society in a marshy
region where the food would be abundant, and the people would see a cactus that
would grow out of a rock, and an eagle that was perched on the cactus would eat
a snake. Supposedly, the priests (to quiet down the murmur of the migrants) had
seen this vision when they first arrived in this marshy and hostile region. This
belief has been entrenching among the Aztec-Mayan descendants for centuries, and
even today the eagle, cactus, and serpent appear on all Mexican paper money.
As the Aztecs grew in number, they established a superior military and civil
bureaucracy. By 1325, they founded the city of Tenochtitlan (located on the site
of present-day Mexico City). The Aztecs converted the lake’s shallow bed into
the highly productive gardens formed by piling up mud from the lake bottom to
the floating islands that fringed the oval main island. These artificial islands
were supported on a network of branches and water grass. At first, the farmers
could tow them with canoes. Then, as trees sent down roots, they became
permanent island farms, called chinampas. Causeways and bridges were
built to connect the city to the mainland, aqueducts were constructed, and
canals were dug throughout the city for easy transportation of goods and people.
When the Spaniards arrived there, they called it the Venice of the New World.
Religious structures dominated the city’s landscape. They were (like the Mayan
pyramids and the Sumerian ziggurats) stepped, limestone-faced pyramids on which
temples were erected. Bridges carried the streets over the network of canals
that laced the city. An aqueduct brought drinking water from Chapultepec, a
rocky height nearby.
Tenant farmers lived in wattle-and-daub huts on these islands. The upper and
middle class people lived in houses of stone and adobe in the older sections of
the city. Each house was built around a patio and raised on a platform for
protection against lake-floods. The majority of the Aztec population was the
lower class of tenant farmers (serfs). There were also farmers, traders, and
craftsmen, who comprised of the bulk of the middle-class.
Aztec society was divided into three classes: the upper class of nobility, the
middle class of commoners (maceualtin), and the lower class of serfs and
slaves (tlalmaitl). The status of the latter was similar to that of an
indentured servant. Although children of poor parents of commoners could be sold
into servitude, it was often only for a specified period. Slaves could buy their
freedom, and those who escaped from their masters and reached the royal palace
without being caught were given their freedom. The commoners were allotted a
plot of land and, as long as it was cultivated, it was a lifetime ownership,
where they could build their houses. However, the serfs and slaves were not
allowed to own property; they were tenant farmers and urban servants. The
nobility was comprised of the priests and the military and civil bureaucrats, as
by birth as well of those (especially warriors) who earned their rank in the
battlefields.
The Aztec bureaucracy had grown from their tribal relationships, which were
divided into families and clans. Each clan had its own elected officials and
sent representatives to the council of the tribe. The council appointed
officials to govern the four quarters, in which the tribe was organized. The
council also elected and advised the military chief, who led the tribe in wars
and alliances. A second chief supervised civil affairs. Although the system was
theoretically democratic, in reality the chiefs of the military and civil
bureaucrats were selected from powerful families, because in time it became
hereditary. Land was held in common by the tribes. The council apportioned
shares to heads of families. Some state-land was allotted to provide food for
chiefs and priests.
Some laws were designed to protect commoners and even slaves from many
injustices of the upper class, but the bulk of them sought to severely suppress
the crimes and disorder of the lower class people. The latter laws would rather
protect the interests of the rich and mighty. For example, the Aztecs punished
the thievery of growing corn by slavery or execution. They used their
organization and power to provide a lavish life-style for the upper class in
their capital. Montezuma II lived in a splendid palace, which had beautiful
gardens and menageries, and he was served by thousands of slaves.
In Aztec religion numerous gods ruled over daily life. Among these were the sun
god (Uitzilopochtli) and moon goddess (Coyolxauhqui), who was
believed to be murdered by her brother the sun god. There were also the rain god
(Tlaloc) and the inventor of writing and the calendar, who was also
associated with resurrection and with the planet Venus (Quetzalcoatl).
Human and animal sacrifices were an integral part of Aztec religion. To obtain
the gods’ aid, the Aztecs had performed penance and took part in innumerable
elaborate rituals and ceremonies. Human sacrifice played an important part in
the rites. The Aztecs clergy reasoned that life was man’s most precious
possession; therefore, it was the most acceptable gift for the gods. As the
Aztec nation grew powerful, more and more sacrifices were needed to keep the
favor of the gods. Although the prisoners of wars were usually used for less
important rituals, at the dedication of the great pyramid temple in
Tenochtitlan, 20,000 captives were sacrificed. The Aztecs practiced cannibalism.
Sometimes they ate the flesh of their victims, believing that they would then
absorb the virtues of the slain. The sacrificial victims were thought to win a
high place in paradise.
The warriors’ code of honor was to die in a battle for the
emperor or to volunteer for sacrifice in a major ritual for the prosperity of
the "country" (meaning the upper class). The volunteer would ascend the steps of
the pyramid, take some drug (usually made of coca); then, the priests would
stretch him across a convex stone; his heart would be ripped out with a sharp
knife and sacrificed to the gods.
Religion was the great controlling force in Aztec life. In architecture and
sculpture, the Aztecs reserved their best efforts for building and decorating
huge temples. They had picture writing (hieroglyphics) and number symbols with
which they recorded religious events and historic annals. They had learned from
the Mayans how to determine the solar year accurately. With this knowledge,
their priests kept an exact solar calendar. An almanac gave dates for fixed and
movable festivals and listed the various deities who held sway over each day and
hour. The Aztecs used pictographic writing that was recorded on paper or animal
hides.
Religion and custom governed many details of child rearing; thus, even the
number of tortillas was customarily prescribed to be fed at various ages.
Children were taught courtesy, respect for their elders, truthfulness, and
self-control. Aztec boys learned practical tasks from their fathers at home,
then went to school at the age of 15. Here older men of each clan taught the
boys the duties of citizenship, religious observances, the history and
traditions of their people, and arts and crafts. Training for war included
learning to use the javelin, bows and arrows, and wooden war clubs with sharp
blades of obsidian. In college, the young men and women studied for the
priesthood.
Because of Tenochtitlan's location and the superior organization of the Aztec
bureaucrats, the Aztecs and their capital city had been flourishing. Goods were
brought into the city by tribute agreements with subjugated peoples, and many
goods were exported from it to be traded in other parts of the Aztec Empire and
Central America. A trade system linked the far parts of the empire with
Tenochtitlan. Soldiers guarded the traders, and troops of porters carried the
heavy loads, for the Aztecs had no pack animals. Canoes brought the crops from
nearby farms through the canals to markets in Tenochtitlan. Their chief produce
included corn, beans, peppers, squash, alligator pears, tomatoes, tobacco,
cotton, and turkeys. Since the Aztecs had not invented money, their trade was
carried on by barter. Change could be made in cacao beans. By the time the
Spaniards, headed by Cortez, arrived in 1519, the great market in Tenochtitlan
was attracting up to 60,000 people daily.
The Aztecs formed their empire through military alliances with the Toltecs and
the remaining Mayans, thus expanding their rule from central Mexico to the
Guatemalan border. In the early 15th century, Tenochtitlan ruled
jointly with the city-states of Texcoco and Tlateloco (present-day Tacuba).
Within a century, the Aztecs acquired control over nearly all of the military
bureaucracies of the confederate city-states, leaving them autonomy for clerical
and civil authorities. By the end of Montezuma II’s reign, in 1520, 38 tributary
provinces had been established. However, some of the tribes at the fringes of
the Aztec Empire remained fiercely resistant to the Aztec rule. Because the
Aztecs did not take the civil bureaucracies of the subjugated people under own
control, the last Aztec emperor, Montezuma II, did not have a firmly organized
empire. When vassal tribes and cities revolted, he had no governors or standing
armies to control them. Thus, the Aztecs had to re-conquer them. This weakness
in the structure of the Aztec bureaucracy, the class division of the Aztec
society and the internal strife within the far-flung tributaries of the Aztec
Empire had allowed Cortez and a handful of Spaniards to conquer the Aztecs in
about two years. Cortez and his soldiers were aided throughout their campaign by
rebellious tribes and cities. In addition to domestic problems that contributed
to the downfall of the empire, its emperor, Montezuma II, naively believed that
Cortez was the god Quetzalcoatl (the Plumed Serpent).
More than one million descendants of the Aztecs live presently near Mexico City.
They and other descendants of Maya are the largest aboriginal group in Mexico.
These people are mainly the lower class of the illiterate tenant farmers, whose
ties to the modern Mexican upper and middle classes and their culture are very
slim. These people retain their ancient language and practice a blended religion
consisting of a large dosage of Aztec-Mayan beliefs and a small dosage of Roman
Catholicism.
By about the 25th century BC, an urban
life had emerged on the island of Crete in the Aegean Sea. In the beginning of
the 20th century, excavations at the site of Knossos revealed the
existence of a horticultural society, named by archaeologists as Minoan (after a
mythical king, Minos). The Minoans probably settled in Crete before 30th
century BC.
There is evidence that Egyptian and Sumerian traders soon reached the Minoans
and established own outposts in Crete. Despite the Egyptian and Mesopotamian
influence, the Minoan gardeners developed their own unique culture and, by about
20th century BC, large city-states with elaborate and luxurious
palaces were built, and the sea trade was flourishing.
The Minoans had a hieroglyphic (pictographical) writing system, comparable with
those of other ancient societies. The Minoan ideology seems to have centered on
the fertile mother goddess of love and on the powerful father god, who was
pictured as a bull or snake. The Minoans are known for their beautiful and
colorful wall paintings and their fine pottery. At about the 14th
century BC, Minoan horticulture began to decline, because of inter-city wars,
the invasions of the Aryan Dorians and Ionians from Greece and Asia Minor, and
the migrations of the refugees of the Aryan-Mycenae-Trojan
(nomado-horitcultural) Wars of the 1st European Dark Age.
The Cretans had, through their history, at least
three distinct scripts. One script was hieroglyphic and two other scripts
were logographic and syllabic, so called -- Linear A and Linear B.
The hieroglyphic script had been found on seal-stones; it resembles the
Egyptian hieroglyphs and is probably the oldest one, occurring as early as 1900
BC. Linear A had been found inscribed on clay tablets, mainly at a Minoan
palace in the south of Crete.
Very little Linear A had been found at the north of Crete, at Knossos, the city
that was built by the later Aryan invaders and refugees, who had used
exclusively Linear B. Although Liner A and B are visibly related, they have many
incongruent signs. Linear A script probably evolved from the hieroglyphic
script, and it lasted until the collapse of the Minoan State in the late 15th
and early 14th centuries; neither script was deciphered yet. Linear A
was the script of the Minoan horticulturists, while Linear B was the script used
by the Aryan Dorian and Ionian invaders, who conquered Knossos and other parts
of Crete. Some signs of Linear A strongly resemble those of the later Linear B.
It is possible that the would-be Greeks borrowed some signs from the conquered
horticulturists and made some adjustments for the rest of them, which would
accommodate their own customs.
Presently,
scholars can substitute the sound values of Linear B in the Linear A
inscriptions, and obtain some words; however, since they do not know Minoan,
they cannot be sure if the words are correct or not. Therefore, Linear A remains
essentially undeciphered. Nevertheless, the scholars are sure that the language
behind the Linear A script is not the archaic Greek, as that one behind the
Linear B script. There are several personal names on a clay tablet with the
Linear A script. Among those names, in the second row from the above, is
distinctively Persian name 'Reza,' who bought 51/2 (liters or
gallons) of wine. Moreover, the name for total is 'ku-ro', instead of being
'to-so,' as in Linear B script. Taking into consideration the method of
producing the tablet itself and the Persian name, we can only vaguely suppose
that there was some Mesopotamian influence in the Minoan State.
After the Minoan society on Crete and adjacent islands was destroyed, its
ideology passed onto the Greek invaders of Knossos and further, to the mainland.
The earlier sources of information about the Hittites came
from the records of the 19th Egyptian Dynasty and from some passages
in the Bible. Moses called the Hittites ‘Sons of Heth’; the later prophets
called them the Syro-Hittites. In 1906, the Hittites’ royal archives were
discovered in excavations at Bogazkoy (in present-day Turkey). The excavated
artifacts cast doubts on some information gathered from Egyptian sources. For
example, the Egyptian records describe certain battles the Egyptians with the
Hittites as victorious for the former and as defeats for the latter. However,
the Hittites’ records show the opposites, which corroborate with some facts; for
example, the Egyptian king Ramses II claimed a great victory over the Hittites,
but the latter continued to maintain their hold on Syria. The importance of the
Hittites’ archives is that information, extracted from them, helped to decipher
the Hittite language, thus revealing some unknown aspects of their culture (such
aspects as literature, ideology, political organization, and legislation).
Most of the texts found in the archives were written in the
Hittite language, but a few treaties and state letters were written in Akkadian,
the international language of that time. A few texts also were written in the
Hurrian language of southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia. Generally,
the Hittites used the cuneiform system of writing taken from the Babylonians.
Although the hieroglyphs were used during the late period of the empire, most of
the hieroglyphic inscriptions belong to the period after its downfall. The
historical records and stories of the Hittites witness about their relatively
high-developed culture.
Hittite, Luwian, Palaic, Lydian, and Lycian form the Anatolian subfamily of
Indo-European languages, which survived in cuneiform inscriptions on tablets.
The first three languages were alive before 10th century BC; the last
two languages were still alive before 2nd century BC. The Hittites
called their language Nesian (after Nesa, the first town that they settled, near
the site of present-day Kayseri, Turkey; it was known to the Romans in the 1st
century as Caesarea Cappadociae). Luwian was spoken in the country called Arzawa
(west of Hatti) and in Cilicia (south of Hatti). Palaic was spoken in the
country called Pala, north of Hatti. Lydian was spoken in northwestern Anatolia.
Lycian derived from Luwian and the Lycians lived in the southwest of Asia Minor.
The Hittite cuneiform texts date to 16th century BC; they are the
oldest written records of any Indo-European language.
From the data that the scholars have got from artifacts follows that a new
agricultural nation was established in the Near East around 17th
century BC – the Hittites in Asia Minor. The Aryan nomadic tribes from the
Taurus Mountains penetrated the valley of the Halya River and captured several
city-states of the Hattic-speaking horticulturists, thus creating the Hittite
nation (1680-1200 BC).
The ancient people of Asia Minor and the Middle East
(inhabiting the land of Hatti on the central plateau of what are now Anatolia,
Turkey, and some areas of northern Syria) were a people speaking a
non-Indo-European agglutinative language. The first wave of the Aryans, who
invaded the region, became known as Hatti, about 19th century BC.
These Aryan nomads imposed their language, culture, and rule on the earlier
inhabitants of the gardening (horticultural) villages in the Halya River valley.
The first town, captured by the Hatti, was Nesa. In 18th century BC,
they conquered the town of Hattusha, near the site of present-day Bogazkoy. This
site was later occupied by several ancient cities, including Pteria, a city of
Cappadocia. Pteria, according to Herodotus, witnessed the defeat of the Lydian
army of King Croesus that was inflicted by the Persian army of King Cyrus the
Great in the 6th century BC.
During the next century, these gardening towns had developed into the
city-states. In the 17th century BC, the second wave of the Aryan
nomads captured these city-states and organized them into an agricultural
Hittite nation. The principal crops of the new agricultural nation were wheat
and barley, and cattle and sheep were raised. The Hittites also had rich mineral
resources of copper, lead, silver, and iron. Their metallurgical techniques were
advanced for that time; they may have been the first people to develop a
substantial iron industry. At first, they used iron only for ritual objects, but
later, applied it for tools and weapons. Because iron ore was more readily
available than copper or tin (necessary to make bronze), the iron tools and
weapons spread throughout the Near East after 12th century BC.
In the 17th century BC, the Hittite Kingdom was founded by the
Hittite leader Labarna, who ruled about 1680-1650 BC. King Labarna established
the 1st Dynasty and settled his capital in Hattusha. Labarna
conquered nearly all of central Anatolia and extended his rule to the
Mediterranean Sea. His successors extended Hittite conquests into northern
Syria. Mursili I, the second ruler of this dynasty, conquered what is now
Aleppo, Syria, and raided Babylon about 1595 BC. Mursili’s assassination was
followed by a period of internal struggle for leadership. That struggle resulted
in the weakness of the Hittite military bureaucracy; however, the Hittites
bureaucrats managed to survive when they elected Telipinu as their king, who
ruled them from 1525 to 1500 BC. To ensure the stability of the kingdom,
Telipinu issued the code of laws with a strict rule of the royal succession.
Despite this measure, the dynasty continued to decline, mired in the internal
struggle.
The Hittite king acted as the supreme priest, military commander, and chief
judge of the land. In other words, he was simultaneously a head of the clerical,
military, and civil bureaucracies. During the 1st Dynasty’s rule, an
advisory council of the upper class (pankus) assisted a king; later, in
the imperial period, this council was dissolved. The empire was administered by
provincial governors acting as deputies of the king. Territories beyond the
empire were frequently ruled as vassal kingdoms, and formal treaties were made
with their rulers.
The most impressive achievement of the Hittite Empire was its system of the
civil bureaucracy (particularly, its legislative body and the administration of
justice). The law codes of the Hittites reveal a strong influence of the code of
Hammurabi. However, the Hittite judges were far more lenient to the convicts
than the Babylonian judges. The Hittite judges rarely resorted to such
punishments as the death penalty or a bodily mutilation, both of which were
characteristic of other agricultural nations (class societies) and empires of
the contemporary Middle East. Moreover, the Hittite justice bureaucrats based
their decisions rather on the principle of monetary restitution than on
retribution or vengeance. The Babylonians confined the use of the principle of
the monetary restitution exclusively to the upper class. The Hittite judges
applied the principle of restitution more evenly to all classes of their
society. They punished the thieves, for example, by compelling them to restore
the stolen object and to pay some additional compensation for moral loss. The
Hittites thought that money could repair a few moral principles, but the full
restoration of morality depended on their gods.
The Hittites had worshiped various gods. A repeated phrase in their state
documents is an invocation to the ‘thousand gods of Hatti’. Scholars have traced
Sumerian, Babylonian, Egyptian, Hurrian, Luwian, and other peoples’ influences
in the Hittite collection of the gods. In the sanctuary of Yazilikaya (near
Bogazkoy), the Hittites cut series of reliefs into rock. The reliefs depict two
long processions of gods and goddesses advancing toward each other. The majority
of the gods are unknown, but the two powers, heading the procession, are the
storm god (or weather god) and the sun goddess (the main powers, whom the
Hittites worshiped).
A part of the Hittite ideology (their mythology – the first, hypothetical stage
of science) represents a combination of elements that reflect the diversity of
cults within their Empire. Certain epic poems contain myths of Hurrian and
Babylonian origin. In their myths, the Hittites had reflected on a family of
successive generations of the heavenly powers who ruled the universe; among
those powers was a monstrous power, which challenged the rule of the last
heavenly king. The Hittite myths are similar to the Greek myths that contain in
Hesiod’s Theogony, and may have been the prototypes of the latter. The
Hittite myths might have reached the Greeks through the Myceno-Trojan and Minoan
ascendancy into Greece (1400-1200 BC). The Trojans are known to have been in
western Anatolia at that time; they have traded with Hittite-held Syria. The
Hittite records refer to contacts between the Hittite kings and the kings of
Ahhiyawa, which some scholars identify with the Achaeans. However it might be,
whether or not some elements of the Hittite ideology were picked up by the
Greeks, it is definite that many of them survived in Anatolia until the first
Romans came into Asia Minor in 190 BC. At that time, the survived descendents of
the Hittites still worshiped such powers as the Great Mother and the storm god
(called Jupiter Dolichenus by the Romans).
The art and architecture of the Hittites reveal the
influence of nearly all the contemporary cultures of the ancient Near East, and
especially of the Babylonians. Nevertheless, as any other people in a concrete
environment, the Hittites achieved a certain degree independence of style that
made their art distinct. Their building materials were generally stone and
brick, but sometimes they used wooden columns. Their massive palaces, temples,
and fortifications frequently served as models for the later generations of the
Babylonians, Persians, and Greeks for their functionality and intricate carved
reliefs on walls, gates, and entrances.
About 1450 BC, the 2nd Hittite Dynasty was
founded. The best known king of this Dynasty was Suppiluliuma, who ruled about
1380-1346 BC. He dethroned his unable brother during a period of foreign
invasions and took the leadership. After defending his territory and defeating
his main enemy (the king of Mitanni in northern Mesopotamia), he led his army
farther into Syria. His further conquests were made possible by a weakening of
the Egyptian Empire during the reign of the Ikhnaton, who was busy, chopping the
heads of his priests, trying to stuff them with his monotheistic ideology.
During the last half of the 14th century BC, the Hittites’
territories extended westward to the Aegean Sea, eastward into Armenia,
southeastward into upper Mesopotamia, and southward into Syria as far as
present-day Lebanon. The success of the Hittite military bureaucracy depended on
its well-designed hierarchy, on well-trained soldiers, and on their tactics. The
Hittites army applied mass attacks, using light, horse-drawn chariots to
demolish the enemy lines, while foot soldiers used effectively their battle-axes
and short curved swords. The Hittites frequently conflicted with the Egyptians.
Thus, the Hittite Kingdom under Suppiluliuma became a great empire, with many
peoples of differ languages and ruling by one central bureaucracy. Thus, the
Hittite Empire became on equals with the Egyptian Empire.
The two empires struggled for control of Syria until a battle was fought in
Kadesh, Syria, between the Hittite army under King Muwatalli (ruled about
1315-1296 BC) and the Egyptian army under King Ramses II. Although Ramses
claimed a great victory, he complained between the lines that even "right"
decisions sometimes do not fulfil expectations. Because the Hittites continued
to maintain their occupation of Syria, it is probable that Ramses concocted his
historical books in order to maintain order among own bureaucrats. Later, King
Hattusili III, who ruled the Hittites from 1289 to 1265 BC, concluded a treaty
of peace and alliance with Ramses and gave him his daughter in marriage.
Thereafter, relations between the Hittites and Egyptians remained friendly until
the end of the Hittite Empire. As usual, the Empire fell apart under the
internal struggle among the Hittite bureaucrats and the external pressure of the
new wave of the nomadic invaders at the brink of the 12th century BC.
The internal conflicts between the clerical and civil bureaucrats preceded the
downfall of the empire, and following external invasions and confusion
aggravated it. Consequently, the empire disintegrated into numerous city-states
with monarchical form of governing. The most famous of those city-states was
Carchemish, in northern Syria. Intermingled ethnic groups, called Syro-Hittites,
consisting primarily of the Aryans, who mingled with the previous inhabitants of
the Hittite Empire’s area, populated these city-states. The rulers of the
Syro-Hittite city-states started to use the Luwian language, in which
hieroglyphics were employed for writing. The Aramaeans conquered two of these
city-states in the 10th century BC; however, both of them remained
independent, until the Assyrians (led by King Sargon II) captured them. Even
after the Assyrians conquered Syria, they still called it Hatti.
The Phoenicians settled a narrow
strip of territory on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, in Lebanon and
Palestine by the 25th century BC. The territory, about 320 km long
and from 8 to 25 km wide, is bound on the east by the Lebanon Mountains. The
northern boundary is considered to be formed by the Eleutherus River
(present-day Kebir), which forms the northern boundary of Lebanon. The southern
boundary was Mount Carmel, a short mountain ridge in present-day Israel. A peak
of the ridge is also called Mt. Carmel; it is 546-m high. Mt. Carmel is famous
for connections with biblical characters and events. The ridge is 21-km long and
5 to 13-km wide. It extends in a northwesterly direction from the Lebanon
Mountains, to the Mediterranean Sea, near the port of Haifa.
The inhabitants of this area had a homogeneous urban culture
and considered selves a single nation. However, Phoenicia was not unified into a
state or as a part of an empire until the 18th century BC; instead
from the 25th century BC it was a loose confederation of
horticultural city-states, one of which usually dominated the others. The main
goal of this confederation (loose union) was the mutual defense of the
city-states from nomadic invasions. The most important of these cities-states
were Simyra, Zarephath (Sarafand), Byblos, Jubeil, Arwad (Rouad), Acco (Acre),
Sidon (Sayda), Tripolis (Tripoli), Tyre (Sur), and Berytus (Beirut). The two
most dominant city-states were Sidon and Tyre, which alternated as the centers
of the confederation.
The Phoenicians, as Homer called them, related to the Canaanites of ancient
Palestine (the territory that lies south of the Mt. Carmel along the coast). The
Canaanites, as Moses called them, were the Semitic-speaking inhabitants of the
land of Canaan. According to Moses, the Israelites, during the late 12th
century BC, captured the Canaanite cities. By the end of the reign of King
Solomon (10th century BC), the Canaanites had been firmly made the
middle and lower classes of Israel, stirring among the Israelites a
controversial ideological influence of their past. The Canaanite ideology was
based on the principle of duality of the male-female universe – the Canaanites
worshipped the Baal and Ashtoreth (Astarte).
From Phoenician, baal means ‘owner or lord’. Lord,
among Semitic nomads, was the name of innumerable earthly male powers (gods)
that controlled all life in this world, especially fertility of the soil and of
domestic animals. Because the various Lords (powers) were not everywhere
in the same degree of importance, they were not conceived as identical; thus,
every locality had preferable combination of the benevolent powers. The name
Lord formed a part of the names of various gods, as the Lord of the Covenant
(Baal-Berith) of the Schechemites, and the Lord of Flies (Baal-Zebub) of
the Philistines, from whom the name of Palestine came. The nomadic Jews learned
the worship of Lord (Baal) from the horticultural Canaanites. Except for
the offerings of fruits and the first born of cattle, little is known about
their rituals. Their shrines were simple altars with the symbol of the Canaanite
female power (Ashtoreth – Lady) set beside them. Lady was the
supreme female power, the goddess of love and fruitfulness. Lady
symbolized the female principle, as Lord symbolized maleness. Sacred
pillars were often erected near the altars – the pillars apparently represented
the male power and the niche – the female power. The Romans called her Astarte.
Lady’s name (like that of Lord) was frequently mentioned by Moses.
Lady has been identified with various Greek female powers: the goddess of
the moon (Selene), the goddess of wild nature (Artemis), and the
goddess of love and beauty (Aphrodite). Lady (Ashtoreth) probably
derived from the Babylonian goddess of love (Ishtar). The name Lord
(Baal) was compounded with many Chaldean, Phoenician, Assyrian, Jewish, and
Carthaginian personal and place-names (such as Baal-bek, Eth-baal, Jeze-bel,
Hasdru-bal, and Hanni-bal), as well as the name of Lady (Ashtoreth).
The Aryan Hurrians named their earliest city-state in honor of the truth god (Asha)
– Ashur (the modern village of ash-Sharqat, on the western bank of the Tigris
River, Iraq). The unearthed city wall was built (according to an inscription) by
the Hurrians, who cuptured the horticultural pre-Hurrians under the leadership
of the chieftain Kikia, who ruled Ashur before the 25th century BC.
The city was dedicated to a masculine power of Truth (Asha). Later, when
the Semitic-speaking Amorites captured the city, they rededicated it to a
feminine power of Love (Ishtar, whom the Poenicians called Ashtoreth, the Greeks
called Aphrodite, and the Romans called Astarte). Thus, the Amorites launched
the first ideological war that would go through millennia. For "surety", ‘there
is no truth and justice in love and war’.
Some biblical scholars now believe that the Hebrew language was derived from
Canaanite, and that the Phoenician language was an early form of Hebrew. Recent
discoveries indicate that, before the Hebrews’ conquest of the south of Canaan,
the Canaanites were included in the Phoenician confederation of the city-states.
The confederation did not help the Canaanites against the Hebrews because the
Phoenicians were busy protecting themselves against the wave of the Aryan
nomads, who broke the Hittite Empire and Myceno-Trojan urban culture on the
brink of the 12th century BC and, later, would form the Greeks.
Historical data indicates that the Canaanites and Phoenicians founded their
first settlements on the Mediterranean coast at about the 25th
century BC. Early in their history, they developed under the influence of the
Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian cultures. In the 19th century BC,
the Phoenicians, Canaanites, and Egyptians were zapped by the wave of the
Semitic nomadic Hyksos of the Lebanon Mountains and Syrian steppes. The Hyksos
took the Egyptian bureaucracy of the 16th Dynasty by surprise and
established the 17th Egyptian Dynasty, which ruled from Memphis
(Lower Egypt) until the Nubian nomads drove them away in the early 15th
century BC. The Hyksos sacked the land and set themselves up as the upper class
and rulers of the Lower Egypt, Canaan, and Phoenicia. Thus, Egypt became an
empire. This had a lasting impact on the Egyptian urban culture, because the
Hyksos brought to Egypt new technology (new types of chariots and body armor)
and a new and broader view on the Mediterranean world. The new bureaucracy
dominated Lower Egypt, Canaan, and Phoenicia for about a century. However, for
the lack of knowledge about native conditions, the Hykso-Egyptian military and
civil bureaucracy became too dependent on the clerical bureaucracy. Soon, it
degenerated and fell under the Nubian nomads, who established the 18th
Egyptian Dynasty and ruled the Egyptian Empire from Thebes (Upper Egypt). The
Egyptian Empire of the 18th Dynasty included in itself Upper and
Lower Egypts and Canaan. The Hittites had held Phoenicia from the late 15th
to the early 11th century BC.
The reunification of Egypt came from Upper Egypt, and Thebes was reestablished
as its capital city. Most of the Hykso-Egyptians were expelled, but a small
portion of them (the middle-class of merchants and artisans, who later, under
the leadership of Moses, would become the Jews) was left untouched. On the brink
of the 13th century BC, the Jews (made by Moses nomadic, to learn the
skill and spirit of war) sacked Canaan and established themselves as the
Hebrews. (A Jew is a proponent of the Judaic ideology, a Hebrew is a citizen of
the Hebrew State, and an Israeli is a citizen of modern Israel.) Nevertheless,
the Phoenician city-states managed to become independent from the Aryan and
Hebrew nomads.
While self-ruling, the Phoenicians became the most notable traders and sailors
of that time. The fleets of their coastal city-states traveled throughout the
Mediterranean and even into the Atlantic Ocean, and other nations (class
societies) competed to employ their ships and crews in own navies. Concerning
their maritime trade, the Phoenician city-states founded many colonies, notably
Utica and Carthage in North Africa, on the islands of Rhodes and Cyprus in the
Mediterranean Sea, and Tarshish in southern Spain. Tyre was the leader of the
Phoenician city-states before the Assyrians subjugated them again during the 8th
century BC. When the Assyrians fell during the late 7th century BC,
nearly all Phoenicia (except for Tyre, which succeeded in maintaining its
independence until about 538 BC) was incorporated into the Chaldean Empire of
Nebuchadnezzar II. In 539 BC, all Phoenicia became part of the Persian Empire.
Under the Persian rule, Sidon became the leading city of Phoenicia.
When the Macedonian Greeks invaded Asia and defeated the Persians in 332 BC,
Sidon, Arwad, and Byblos capitulated to the Macedonians without resistance. The
Tyreans again refused to submit, and it took Alexander a 7-month siege to
capture the city. After this defeat, the Phoenicians gradually lost their
separate identity, as they were absorbed into the Greco-Macedonian Empire. The
cities became Hellenized, and, in the year 64, when the territory was made part
of the Roman province of Syria, even the name of Phoenicia disappeared from the
Roman lexicon.
The most important Phoenician contribution to the urban culture was their
alphabet, purple dye (called Tyrian purple), and the invention of glass. The
Phoenician industries, particularly the manufacture of textiles and dyes,
metalworking, and glassmaking, were highly valuable in the ancient world.
Each city-state had own Lord and Lady, and the temple was the
center of the Phoenicians’ social life. The Phoenician language was originally
the language of the Aramaeans (from Aramaic, aram means ‘highland’, in
contrast to the lowland of Canaan), country northeast of Palestine, between the
Lebanon Mountains and the Euphrates River, roughly corresponding to present-day
Syria. The Aramaeans were the several nomadic tribes, relatives of the Amorites
and Hyksos, who captured the region of Phoenicia and Canaan in the 18th
century BC. Their language was a dialect of the Assyro-Babylonian (Semitic)
language, which used to be used in Syria from the 3rd millenium BC
and which, after the 10th century BC, became the international
language of the Middle East.
The Assyro-Babylonian language (also known as Akkadian) was the oldest known
member of the Semitic languages, written and spoken in Mesopotamia from the 3rd
to the 1st millennium BC. After the Semitic nomadic Akkadians
conquered the Sumerian city-states (under the leadership of Sargon the Great,
who founded the Akkadian Dynasty that ruled the Sumerians from 2335 to 2279 BC),
Akkadian gradually displaced Sumerian. From the 24th century BC,
Akkadian was first written down in the cuneiform script, taken from the
Sumerians. This script was not well adapted to writing the Akkadian (Semitic)
sounds. Later, many of the difficulties were eventually solved by orthographic
reforms of the Amorites, Elamites, and especially in the time of the Babylonian
king Hammurabi. At the time of the breakup of the Sumero-Akkadians, on the brink
of the 2nd millenium BC, the Sumero-Akkadian language was in general
use throughout Mesopotamia. Apparently, it also has been adapted as a political
and religious language by the Elamites to the east and by the Gutians, Lullians,
and Hurrians to the north and northeast.
The Sumero-Akkadian language, deciphered in the 19th century, was
written with about 600 word or syllable signs. It had 20 consonant and 8 vowel
sounds. Verbs had two tenses, past and present-future. Nouns were dualistic
(feminine or masculine), as well as the Sumero-Akkadian ideology. Nouns also
were singular, dual, or plural in number; they were declined in the nominative,
genitive (possessive), and accusative cases.
In the 19th century BC, the Sumero-Akkadian language broke up into
two major dialects, Babylonian in the south and Assyrian (actually Ashurian,
because the Arameans, who captured Ashur, became known as the Assyrians) in the
north, each of which gradually underwent a number of changes. Babylonian became
the dominant form and, even in Assyria, it was used for literary purposes and
for other ideological inscriptions. The Assyrian dialect was used for economic
and legal documents. The history of the Babylonian dialect is usually divided
into four periods: Old Babylonian (c. 1950-1500 BC), Middle Babylonian (c.
1500-1000 BC), Neo-Babylonian (c. 1000-600 BC), and Late Babylonian (c. 600 BC –
75 AD).
During the Old Babylonian period, the use of the Babylonian dialect spread over
most of Syria, Phoenicia, and Canaan as the diplomatic and commercial language
of the upper and middle classes. After the 15th century BC, during
the period of the clashes between the rival empires of the Egyptians, the
Hittites, Babylonians and Mitannians, Middle Babylonian was the language of
almost all-diplomatic correspondence and of treaties between those empires.
In the 12th century BC, when Syria and Asia Minor were overrun by
various waves of the Aryans and Canaan was captured by the Semitic Hebrews, the
cultural and linguistic continuity in the Phoenician and Canaanite-Hebrew areas
seems to have not been radically disturbed. After 900 BC, when the expanding
Assyrian Empire came to include large numbers of Aramaeans, the Aramaic language
began gradually to supplant Assyrian as the spoken language, even in Assyria.
Meanwhile, Aramaic-speaking tribes, including the Chaldeans, had conquered
Babylonia. These tribes soon assimilated Babylonian culture and gradually made
Aramaic the speech of the upper and middle class population. By the Hellenistic
period, Aramaic had replaced Babylonian almost completely as the spoken
language. Nevertheless, Babylonian was retained as the ideological language
(science, religion, law, and literature), much as Latin was used in Europe after
the breakup of the Roman Empire. This situation prevailed through the
Hellenistic period (323-146 BC) into the period of Parthian rule, when, at least
in the cities of Babylon and Erech (Uruk), Babylonian was still used by the
priesthood and by the Chaldean astronomers. The last known text in the
Babylonian language is an astronomical tablet from Babylon that dates from 75
AD.
Aramaic survived the fall of the Assyrian Nineveh (612 BC) and the Chaldean
Babylon (539 BC) and remained the official language of the Persian Empire
(539-332 BC). Ancient inscriptions in Aramaic have been found over a vast area
extending from Egypt to China.
Before the 3rd century BC, Aramaic had become the language of the
Jews in Palestine. Jesus preached in Aramaic, and parts of the Old Testament and
much of the rabbinical literature were written in that language. Christian
Aramaic (called Syriac) also developed an extensive literature, especially
between the 4th and 7th centuries; after that, the Arab
nomads conquered the region and Aramaic began to decline in favor of Arabic.
Aramaic survives today in Eastern and Western dialects, mostly as the language
of Christians living in a few scattered communities in Syria, Lebanon, Turkey,
Iraq, and Iran.
When the Hykso-Egyptians were expelled from Egypt by the Nubian nomads in the
early 15th century BC, a small portion of them, who collaborated with
the newly established upper class, became the middle-class of merchants and
artisans. Later, when the Libyan nomads would establish a new upper class and
the Nubian-Egyptian would be transferred into the middle-class, the
Hykso-Egyptians would probably become the lower class of forced laborers. Thus,
fearing to become the lower class, the twelve extended families of them would
prefer to become again the nomads under the leadership of Moses, who preached
the Judaic ideology. This small group of the Jews left Egypt at the beginning of
its 3rd Dark Age in the late 12th century BC and roamed
through Sinai Desert for forty years.
While roaming through the Wilderness the Jews multiplied and
learned the warrior skill and thereafter, under the military leadership of
Joshua, conquered several cities in Palestine. The Jews started their conquest
from capturing Jericho, as a biblical writer put it – ‘by marching around it and
blowing rams’ horns until its [fortification] walls collapsed’. However, all
that is known for surety is that Jericho was a relatively poor town at that
time. Nevertheless, it controlled access to the Jerusalem plateau that is vital
to the security of all Palestine. Whoever controlled Jerusalem was likely to
control much of the economic and political (military and diplomatic) traffic of
the ancient Near East. Therefore, the capture of Jericho would have been a major
triumph for the Jews. Probably, the Jews approached the town from the Sinai.
They would have been discouraged from taking a more direct route by the presence
of several fortified positions protecting the main road. Instead, they took a
long loop around to the south of the town and circled back from the east to get
the town from unprotected side. That is why the biblical writer so
euphemistically expressed this event.
Capturing several cities, the Jews settled and became a nation – the Hebrews.
The term Hebrew is applied in the Bible to Abraham (Gen. 14:13). Etymologically,
the name Hebrews seems to mean ‘those who pass from place to place’ or ‘nomads’,
a designation applied to them by the agricultural Amorites (who themselves, only
a millenium before, were nomads). It is generally assumed that the Hebrews are
the people called Habiru or Habiri in the tablets, written about 1400 BC, and
found at Tell Amarna in 1887, Egypt. These tablets witnessed that Habiru was the
name of one of the Hyksos nomadic tribes, who captured Lower Egypt, Canaan, and
Phoenicia, and established themselves as the upper class of those areas in 17th
and 16th centuries BC. This assumption coincides with biblical
tradition. In Gen. 40:15, Joseph explains to the Egyptians that he had been
kidnapped from "the land of the Hebrews". In Exod. 2:6, an Egyptian princess
recognizes Moses as "one of the Hebrews’ children". The implication of these
sources is that in early times the would-be Hebrew were known among ethnic
groups of the Egyptians as the Habiru or nomads. In later times, the Israelites
and Judah applied the name of Hebrew to themselves, as in Jonah 1:9.
The Hebrew language was a dialect of Hyksoan, and consequently, a dialect of
Middle Babylonian. After the Jews captured the Canaanites, they became an
agricultural nation – the Hebrews. However, the Hebrew did not form a strong
nation with a central bureaucracy. Instead, they organized a loose confederation
of the city-states, which circled around common ideology and belief in one
power, one god, Yahweh. When there was a threat of a foreign invasion,
the patriarchs of each tribe would decide whether to engage in joint action or
not. The Hebrew confederation was loose because the structure of their military
bureaucracy was organized by the tribal membership. Each patriarch of a tribe
(or his son) was the military commander of a troop, compiled from the members of
his tribe. This military organization was the same as that of Homer’s Greeks,
who siege Troy (and nearly at the same time). When a tribal troop was on a march
and a chieftain did not have an adult son, then a nearest adult male relative
would be a judge, who would head the civil bureaucracy during the war time. Only
the clerical bureaucracy was centralized.
This loose Hebrew confederation lasted for nearly two
centuries, while there was no a strong empire around them. At the south, the
Egyptians were weak under the Libyan-Egyptian Dynasties and in their 3rd
Dark Age. At the north, the Hittite Empire was demolished by the would-be the
Greeks. At the east, from 1100 BC, Aramaean tribes from the Syrian steppe halted
Assyrian expansion for the next two centuries and, with related Chaldean tribes,
overran the Assyrian Babylon. Only after 910 BC, the Assyrians fought these
tribes again and managed to expand their territories. The only real enemy for
the Hebrews was the internal enemy – the lower class of the original
horticulturists of the land, the Philistines (from whom the name Palestine
derives). The Philistines were deprived their lands by the Canaanites and were
concentrated in the unfertile coastal regions of Palestine. Under the
Canaanites, they became the middle and lower classes of the merchants, artisans,
fishermen, and forced laborers. Under the Hebrews, the Canaanites became the
middle class, and the Philistines became exclusively the lower class of the
serfs and slaves. Their frequent riots and rebellions compelled the Hebrews to
consolidate their military and civil bureaucracies in the office of a king.
Thus, at the brink of the 1st millenium BC, the Hebrew united under
King Soul to fight the rebellious five Philistine cities. Under his successor,
David, the Hebrews temporarily suppressed the resistance of the Philistines and
Canaanites and captured Jerusalem in about 996 BC. Under David’s son, Solomon
(Peaceful), the Hebrews engaged in active trade with the Phoenicians. Under King
Solomon, the Hebrews built a royal palace in Jerusalem and beside it a temple –
their spiritual center. From David’s times to 722 BC there were no fewer than
six reconstructions of Jerusalem’s fortifications, indicating that the city had
been recaptured several times by the Edomites, Ammonites, and Moabites (the
Philistine tribes).
In the 13th century BC, the Hittites invented the use of the
iron-made tools and weapons and passed this knowledge onto the Phoenicians, who,
in their turn, passed it onto the Hebrews. The use of the iron-tipped plow
improved agricultural productivity and the Hebrew population significantly
increased. The old tribal allegiance weakened as urban life expanded.
Differentiation by wealth began even among the Hebrews themselves. The populous
families with the limited lot of land could not afford the same level of
taxation the families of few. The economic disparity grew and the land
aristocracy emerged. Many Hebrew people were transferred into the middle and
even lower classes. The inner opposition to Solomon’s high-taxes (needed to
cover his lavish life-style) and his favoritism to the southern region
(including Jerusalem) led to the rebellion of the northern Hebrews and the
division of the Hebrew kingdom. After Solomon’s death, in 922 BC, the
southerners, loyal to Solomon’s son, organized the Judah kingdom, and the
northerners – the Kingdom of Israel.
In 722 BC, the Assyrians captured, first, Israel, and then, Judah. Thereafter,
Palestine had been a province of different empires (the Assyrian, Chaldean,
Persian, Macedonian, Parthian, Roman, etc.). Consequently, the followers of
Yahweh and the Mosaic Laws have become known as the Jews, because they have not
had sovereign civil and military bureaucracy. The Jews became mixing with the
middle and lower classes of descendents of the Canaanites and Philistines. Their
language had also been mixed, and became known as Canaanite or Judean (after the
kingdom of Judah). Modern Hebrew, the only vernacular tongue based on an ancient
written form, was developed in the 19th centuries.
Hebrew (as a living language, in which most of the Old Testament was written)
dates from the 12th to the 2nd century BC. Capturing the
Canaanites and Philistines, the Jews became the upper class of the Hebrew
confederation of the city-states; later, the Hebrew kingdom; and later, the
kingdoms of Judah and Israel. The latter was adjoined to Phoenicia. Thus, it is
probable that Hebrew in its earliest form was almost identical to Phoenician,
because the latter also was a dialect of Middle Babylonian and Hyksoan as the
language of the Phoenician upper and middle classes. From about the 6th
century BC, the Jews in Palestine became the middle and lower classes under the
rule of the Assyrians, Chaldeans, and Persians. Thus, Aramaic came in use both
as speech and as secular writing because it was the international language of
the middle classes of those empires. The Jews outside Palestine spoke the
language of the countries in which they had settled. However, Hebrew was
preserved as the ideological language of the Jews, who had the will-to-rule and
to be the upper class. Nevertheless, through the centuries, Hebrew has undergone
periodic literary revivals, in accord with the Jews’ ever evolving
thirst-for-power.
Linguists divide the Semitic languages into two centers, from which these
languages derived – the Syrian Steppes (from where the Assyro-Babylonian or
Akkadian language came) and the Arabian Desert (from where the Arabic Language
came). The oldest attested Semitic language, with the oldest Semitic literature,
Akkadian was spoken in Mesopotamia between about the 22nd and 4th
centuries BC and used as a literary language until the 1st century.
From Akkadian had derived Phoenician, Ugaritic, Hebrew, and Aramaic (including
Syriac).
From Arabic derived such dialects as Maltese and south Arabic, now spoken in
parts of the southern Arabic Peninsula, and the languages of Ethiopia. The
classical Ethiopic language, now surviving only as a literary and liturgical
language; Amharic, the official language of Ethiopia; and regional Ethiopian
languages such as Tigre, Tigrinya, and Gurage.
In Semitic languages, words are typically based on a series of three consonants.
This series, called the root, carries the basic meaning. Superimposed on the
root is a pattern of vowels (or vowels and consonants) that signifies variations
in the basic meaning or that serves as an inflection (such as for verb tense and
number). For example, in Arabic, the root k-t-b refers to writing, and
the vowel pattern a-i implies ‘one who does something’. Thus, katib
means ‘a writer’. Other derivatives of the same root include kitab that
means ‘a book’, maktub means ‘a letter’, and kataba means ‘he
wrote’. The close relationship of the Semitic languages to one another can be
seen in the persistence of the same roots from one language to another. For
example, s-l-m means ‘peace’ in Assyro-Babylonian, Hebrew, Aramaic,
Arabic, and other languages – salaam or shalom mean ‘peace onto
you’. In Semitic languages, related consonants typically fall into three
subtypes: voiced, unvoiced, and emphatic; an example is the series
transliterated g-k-q from Arabic and Hebrew (the q is
pronounced farther back in the throat than k).
Except for two non-deciphered scripts used by the ancient Canaanites, and the
Latin alphabet as used for Maltese, Semitic languages have historically been
written in three scripts. Assyro-Babylonian was written in cuneiform signs, and
Ugaritic used a cuneiform alphabet. Phoenician was an alphabetic script; one of
its earliest examples is inscribed on the Moabite stone (9th century
BC, discovered in 1868 and now in the Louvre, Paris). From the Aramaic variant
of Phoenician, the modern Arabic and square Hebrew alphabets developed;
Phoenician also gave rise to the Greek and Etruscan alphabets. Like the
Phoenician, the Hebrew and Arabic scripts are alphabets of consonants only;
special marks for vowels apparently came into use in about the 8th
century. The third script, the South Arabic, may or may not have been another
variant of the early Phoenician script. The consonantal alphabet also was used
in Ethiopia in the 1st millennium BC, from which derived the syllabic
scripts that are used for modern Ethiopian languages. From its beginning, the
first stroke of the Ethiopian script was written from right to left, and the
second stroke – from left to right; however, under the Greek influence, the
Ethiopians started to write only from left to right.
The original Hebrew alphabet consisted only of consonants; vowel signs and
pronunciation currently accepted for biblical Hebrew were created by the
Biblical commentators (also known as Masoretes) after the 5th
century. These commentators also standardized various dialectal differences. The
vocabulary of biblical Hebrew is small. Concrete adjectives are used for
abstract nouns. The paucity of particles, which connect and relate ideas, and
the limitation to two verb-tenses (perfect and imperfect) cause an ambiguity
regarding time concepts; various syntactic devices were employed to clarify
relations of time. A past action was indicated by the first in a series of verbs
being in the perfect tense. All following verbs are in the imperfect; for
present or future action, the first verb is in the imperfect tense and all
subsequent ones in the perfect.
Hebrew was the principal literary language of the Jews until the 19th
century, when European languages came into use for works of modern Jewish
scholars, and Yiddish became a vehicle of literary expression. Hebrew was
established again as the official language of Israel, in 1948 or nearly 26
centuries after it had ceased to exist as a language of a state bureaucracy.
The Hebrew ideology was expressed in the Hebrew Bible (the Old Testament). The
period of creation of the Hebrew ideology may be divided chronologically into
seven periods. The first three periods of creation of this ideology were devoted
to the writing of various portions of the Old Testament.
In the first period, which extended from about 1250 to 950 BC, were
written the major parts of the Judaic ideology (the Mosaic laws and the wanted
Jewish social organization) and many of the lyrics found in the Old Testament.
To the second period (c. 950-586 BC)
belong most of the historical narratives concerning the kings of Israel and
Judah, some of the Psalms, and the oracles of certain prophets.
During the third period (586-165 BC) the books of the Bible known as the
Writings, specifically, Ecclesiastes, Job, Proverbs, and a large part of the
Psalms were composed. Many apocryphal (that were not included in the Bible)
writings also originated during this time, and Jewish scholars living in Egypt
translated a major portion of the Old Testament.
In the fourth period of the legal interpretations (also known as
Midrash, 165 BC – 135 AD) had been actually started during the Babylonian
captivity. From Hebrew, darash means ‘interpretation’. These
interpretations consisted of the writings of different rabbis about the laws and
customs set forth in the Old Testament. The material contained in the
interpretive writings is divided into three groups – the traditional law (Halakah);
a deduction of the traditional law from the written law (Halakic Midrash);
and legends, sermons, and interpretations of the narrative parts of the Bible
and concerning ethics and theology rather than law (Haggadic Midrash).
The forms and styles of these writings show considerable flexibility, ranging
from parables to sermons to codification of laws.
The Dead Sea Scrolls were also written in this period; they
are attributed to the Jewish monastic communities of the Essenes, who were
organized on a communal basis and practicing strict asceticism. The order, with
about 4000 members, existed in Palestine and Syria between the 2nd
century BC and the 2nd century AD. Its chief settlements were on the
shores of the Dead Sea. Various groups have been set forth as possible
prototypes for the Essenian order.
Chief among them are Tsenium (from Hebrew, means the ‘modest or chaste ones’),
Hashshaim (the ‘silent ones’), Hasidim Harishonim (the ‘ancient saints or
elders’), and Nigiyye Had Daath (the ‘pure of mind’). Each of these words was
characteristic of the order, the fundamental teachings of which were love of
God, love of virtue, and love of one’s fellow humans. Important features of the
Essenian organization were the communal property that was distributed according
to need, strict observance of the Sabbath, and scrupulous cleanliness that
involved washing in cold water and wearing white garments. Swearing, taking
oaths (other than oaths of membership in the Essenian order), animal sacrifices,
the making of weapons, and participation in trade or commerce was prohibited.
Most of these prohibitions do not apply to the modern Hasidic Jews. The latter
wear exclusively black garments, leaving white color only for underwear, as
saying, ‘our deeds might be seen as purely black and evil, but our intentions
were purely white and good’.
The philosopher Philo Judaeus and of the historian Flavius Josephus were writing
in this period. Among other ideological Jewish works of this period were a
number of the apocalyptic writings of the Old Testament, including those
ascribed to Moses, the prophet Daniel, the patriarch Enoch, and the priest and
reformer Ezra.
The major accomplishment during the fifth period (135-475) was the
Talmud. The version known as the Palestinian Talmud was completed, and the
version known as the Babylonian Talmud took shapes.
In the sixth period (470-740) the Babylonian Talmud was completed, some
early versions of the interpretations that concerned ethics and theology were
collected and (as the marginal notes – Masora) were added to the Hebrew
Scriptures.
In the seventh period (740-1088), the earliest Hebrew prayer books were
compiled and the first dictionary of the Talmud was written. Rhymed Hebrew
poetry was first written in the 8th century, and the forms and rules
of modern Hebrew poetry originated in the 10th century. In the early
part of this period, the centers of Judaism shifted into northern Africa and
Italy, and later, into Spain, and Egypt. The period ended with the completion of
a Masoretic text in the form of a book or codex that is now in the collection of
the Saint Petersburg Public Library and from which the standard Hebrew Bible is
printed in our times.
The sacred Hebrew Scriptures are also the parts of the Christian Bible and
Islamic Koran. However, the Bible of Judaism and the Bible of Christianity are
different. The Jewish Bible consists of the Hebrew Scriptures. It was compiled
of 39 books that were originally written in Hebrew, except for a few sections in
Aramaic. The Christian Bible consists of two parts – the Old Testament and the
27 books of the New Testament. The Old Testament had been structured in two
slightly different forms by the two principal divisions of Christendom. The
version of the Old Testament used by Roman Catholics is the Bible of Judaism
plus seven other books and additions to books. Some of those additional books
were originally written in Greek, as was the New Testament. The Protestants used
the 39 books of the Jewish Bible as the version of the Old Testament. The
Protestants called other books and additions to those books the Apocrypha.
The term Bible is derived from the Greek biblia, ‘books’, the diminutive
form of byblos, the word for ‘papyrus’ or ‘paper’ that was exported from the
ancient Phoenician city-state of Byblos. By the time of the Middle Ages, the
books of the Bible were considered a unified entity.
The order as well as the number of books differs between the Jewish Bible and
the Protestant and Roman Catholic versions of the Bible. The Jewish Bible
consists of three parts – the Mosaic Laws (Torah); the Prophets (divided
into the Earlier and Latter); and the Writings (including Psalms, wisdom books,
and other diverse literature). The Christian Old Testament organizes the books
according to their type of literature – the Five Books (Pentateuch) that
correspond to the Mosaic laws; historical books; poetical or wisdom books; and
prophetic books. In my view, the Jewish Bible was compiled more reasonably,
because the prophets were prophets since they saw history before it happened.
However, the Christian Bible was compiled two centuries before the Jewish Bible;
thus, the compilers of the latter had more time to contemplate on the historical
perspective of the books. The Protestant and Roman Catholic versions of the Old
Testament place the books in the same sequence, but the Protestant version
includes only the 39 books that are found in the Jewish Bible. The New Testament
includes the four Gospels; the Acts of the Apostles, a history of early
Christianity; Epistles, or letters, of Paul and other writers; and an
apocalypse, or book of revelation.
The Islamic Koran is a collection that was compiled by the followers of
Muhammad a few years after his death in 632. From Arabic, quran means ‘to
read’. A version that was authorized by the Islamic clerical bureaucracy was
compiled in the early 650s by a group of Arabic ideologists under Uthman ibn
Affan (c. 575-656). They attempted to destroy all other versions of the Koran,
but some of those versions survived and had been adapted by some Islamic
communities.
The Koran was divided into 114 chapters (suras)
of various lengths. The Koran contains the Islamic ideology (its religious,
civil, and military legal codes). The main doctrine laid down in the Koran is –
only one God and one true religion exist. All will undergo a final judgment and
the just human beings will be rewarded with eternal bliss but the sinners will
be punished with eternal pain. When humankind turned from truth, God sent
prophets to lead the way back. The greatest of those prophets were Moses, Jesus
Christ, and Muhammad. Punishments and rewards are depicted with vivid imagery
and are exemplified by stories, many of which also are found in the Jewish and
Christian Bibles and Apocrypha. Laws, directions, and admonitions to virtuous
behavior were paralleled to those of the Jewish and Christian Bibles, and of the
Hindu Scriptures. As the Christians partake symbolically of the "blood and body"
of the Christian upper classes (camouflaged under the name of "Jesus Christ")
through their ritual of Communion, so do the Muslims partake the ideological
context of the Islamic upper classes (masked under the name of "Allah") through
reciting their Scriptures.
The Koran is the center of gravity of the Islamic universe, without which the
Muslim tradition would not be materialized. To the Muslims (the surrendered
to God), the ideological context of the Koran is the same as that one of the
Bibles to the Jews and the Christians, and is considered to be God's holy Word.
The Christians believe that God's Word has come down into reality as a human
being, Jesus Christ. However, the Muslims believe that God has been sending his
Word to the humans as a written book and its living "recitation" (koran)
-- the two interchangeable and complementary God's reincarnations through sacred
speech.
Muhammad's success as a nation builder out of the Arabic nomads had rested on
his balanced character and charismatic personality -- he had not only taught on
a great variety of public interests but also has expressed his judgments in such
a way that his students have not been diminished by his authority, but inspired
to imitate his behavior. Like Moses, Muhammad had led the unruly nomadic people
as a military commander, judging and promoting them in accord with the unified
and apparently non-contradictory rules (God's laws). Although Muhammad had a
large family and was a public figure, yet he managed to balance his public life
with a disciplined private life of retreat, meditation, prayer, and temporary
abstinence of food and sex. After Muhammad's death, his followers have been
seeking guidance through the reality by remembering his words and behavior,
which were preserved in a written book and verbal traditions that together
embody the "submissive" (islam) way of life or the beaten track (sunna)
to "success" in "this" world and "salvation" in "that" world.
Muhammad taught that God created the heavens and the earth and that His angels
carry out His decisions and communicate with humans through prophetic dreams and
inspirations. God has entrusted the pre-Muhammad prophets with His message of
mercy and final judgment, with salvation in paradise for believers and damnation
in hell for infidels. Tempered by compassion to all humans, God's justice
requires Him to communicate His message to them; and because the Arabic nomads
were the last people receiving the God's message through Muhammad, they were
entrusted to call all peoples to submit (Islam) themselves to One God. Thus,
Muhammad called upon the polytheistic Arabic nomads to reorganize themselves
into the "purified" and orderly "community" (umma).
To constitute the disorganized nomadic tribes into an orderly state, the
compilers of the Koran used such words as "lord" (caliph or deputy of God
on earth), through whom and whose institutions the unified rules of social
behavior would be imposed. Therefore, in the Arabic countries, the notion of
god's caliphate has been persisting ever since and has its deepest meaning that
each individual submits own desires and commits himself in this life to the rule
of God, who rules on the earth through the upper class bureaucrats; however, the
commoners and laborers have the opportunities to rise in the social hierarchy
through their abilities and knowledge. The Muslims believe that God alone is
able to bring about his servants' worldly success, but the individual's efforts
are also necessary. Faith and works both procure God's blessings and rewards,
but the faith of a faithful is essentially God's gracious gift.
According to the compilers of the Koran, the God endowed the humans with the
divine nature to please Him, while contemplating their devotion to Him and
mirroring His virtues and glory. To satisfy Himself, God separated humans from
Himself but provided them with certain capacities as well as with the
revelations of the Scriptures; however, the humans would be ungrateful and
guilty of both moral and intellectual error if they would not submit themselves
to God through living in this world by faith in His greatness, by abiding hope
in His mercy, and obedience to His rule, which is delivered through the worldly
bureaucracy. If the commoners and laborers would persist in their individualism
and self-satisfaction, they would be doomed. Those who would not submit selves
to God (read, to the bureaucrats), whether by outright refusal by hardiness of
heart and obscurity of reasoning or by placing their egos ahead of God's
("country's") service, would reject their own "true" nature (fitra,
karma, or destiny). Although the humans cannot destroy their destiny, which God
has been providing along with their individual freedom to imagine and to choose,
they can fail to enter the paradise.
Therefore, the Islamic scholars accentuate the individual's free will rather
than his fatalism, as the Hindu scholars do. However, his freedom is neither his
permission of self-indulgence nor his guarantee of his worldly or heavenly
success. Rather, the individual's free will is his necessary condition of being
in this world and thus separated from God, whereas God's will and compassion are
the final cause of this separation and the future unity.
The Muslims believe that they have been called by God to establish a righteous
political and social order on earth. They suppose that the only way to live
gratefully as the God's deputies on earth is to make full use of what God
bestowed onto them. Consequently, their fundamental doctrine includes the belief
in the divine unity (tawhid) that requires a unified human religious
community as well. This assumption was borrowed from Judaism and has been easy
to declare rather than to understand, moreover, to apply in everyday life. In
fact, the entire theological superstructure about the Koran is a facilitation to
realizing this unity.
The second important assumption of the Islamic doctrine is the belief in angels
as the divine appointees and helpers in the myriad tasks of God. This assumption
was borrowed from Zoroastrianism.
The third important assumption of the Islamic doctrine is the belief in prophecy
and sacred books, especially of that of Muhammad and the Koran, as the final
"seal" of the historic cycle of prophecy. Shaping this belief in his followers,
Muhammad followed in the foot-steps of Moses, who hated all contemporary
prophets as potential competitors in the market of ideas but would not mind
glorifying them after killing them.
The fourth important assumption of the Islamic doctrine is the belief in the
Judgment Day when all the dead would be raised and judged, and the righteous
would be saved in eternal heavenly bliss but the unbelievers would be cast down
into hell. This assumption came into Islam from Christianity.
The fifth important assumption of the Islamic doctrine is the belief in Divine
Decree and predestination. The ways of God are mysterious to humans, who
nevertheless received enough freedom to make responsible moral decisions; in
other words, who were indoctrinated sufficiently to play by the rules of the
upper class.
After publicly declaring and witnessing that "There is no god but God, and
Muhammad is the messenger of God", a Muslim usually performs a formal worship (Salat),
which he observes at dawn, at noon, during the mid-afternoon, just after the
sun-set, and in the evening. A prescribed rituals are required to perform each
of these times; however, each worshipper may also perform additional ones. A
prime prerequisite for a worship is ritual "purification", which is achieved by
washing of the face, head, ears, mouth, nostrils, hand and arms to the elbows,
feet and ankles, while praying for mental and bodily purity and guidance from
the above on this matters. If a devotee experiences a "major" impurity, such as
recent contacts either with a sexual partner or with the saliva of pigs or dogs,
then he is obliged to take a ritualized full bath of the entire body. Based on
this sensual division between "pure" and "impure" substances for an individual,
the Judaic and Muslim scholars have been analogizing into the realm of social
behavior, where they have been erecting such abstract categories as "permitted
or forbidden" and "right or wrong", which always bear a class bias or prejudice
of their speakers. "Cleanliness is next to godliness" is an obsessive ideal
among the Muslims as it is among the Orthodox Jews, Christian Puritans, and the
Nazis.
The Muslims believe that almsgiving (Zakat) purifies the remaining
property of the giver, because it is strongly symbolizes the total submission of
the giver to the One, almighty God. The almsgiving symbolizes the social
conscious of the giver, who supports other Muslims with his wealth, thus
increasing not only cohesiveness and security of the Muslim community, but also
renders it purer. God has endowed his creatures with wealth and asks humans to
return it through works that enhance their own community.
Fasting (Sawm) is another ritual of purification; it is prescribed for
the Muslims for the entire month of Ramadan (a lunar month of the Islamic
calendar, somewhere between mid-November and mid-December). In this month, it is
forbidden to a Muslim to have such pollutants as food, drink, smoke, sex, and
medicine from dawn to dark. This ritualized hiding of their "sins" from the
sunlight, the Muslim scholars drew from their ancestral "infidel" Arabs, who
worshiped the sun-god as the main deity of their pantheon.
Another ritual of purification for a Muslim, which is not an obligatory one but
depends on personal (material and spiritual) circumstances, is his pilgrimage (Hajj)
to Mecca and other sacred places. This ritual derived from the ancient Egyptian
beliefs in saintly person, who provide their spiritual power and blessings to
the living community. The returning pilgrim is considered as a living saint, who
is honored with the title Hajji and resides in a sacred house marked by
the symbols of the Islamic spiritual centers (Mecca and Medina).
Another ritual of purification of a Muslim is his perseverance and assertiveness
(Jihad) of basic beliefs in God. There are the greater and the lesser
assertions of faith. The greater jihad means that a Muslim has an inner,
spiritual struggle with own demons and needs for repentance; whereas, the lesser
jihad means the "holy war" against the foes of the Islamic bureaucrats.
The lesser assertion of Islamic faith may mean defending the status quo, and it
may mean spreading Islam by force.
The term "fundamentalists" was coined in the early 20th century to
characterize the American conservative Christian Protestants who asserted five
key-beliefs of their doctrine -- the virgin birth of Jesus Christ, his physical
resurrection, the infallibility of the Scriptures, the substitution Atonement,
and the Second Coming of Jesus in his physical form. Although the Muslim
bureaucrats agree only with the belief in the infallibility of the Scriptures
(Koran, of course), yet, among the American propagandists, the term stuck with
the most conservative and militant Muslims. Now the term "fundamentalists" is
usually applied to the conservative and militant bureaucrats of all religious
denominations, whereas the conservative and militant secular bureaucrats are
called "hardliners".
Some fundamentalists assert their beliefs through preaching, teaching and other
forms of communication in religious schools, universities, and in the media.
Other fundamentalists assert their beliefs politically, supporting either the
hardliners or the opposing revolutionaries; but in either case, they would not
mind to use the terrorist methods, whether against outsiders or against the
internal "weaklings"
The middle and lower class believers, who are concern to maintain as "pure" a
version of their faith as humanly possible, are not usually organized into
specific political or cultural groups. Most of them are moderate, tolerant, and
devoutly observant, without being extremists. However, they can be easily
manipulated by the unscrupulous fundamentalists and can be aroused mightily when
they perceive a threat to their interests and to their community as a real one,
because the commoners and laborers inhabit at least three spiritual areas
-- in the first one, they identify selves with the present national bureaucracy
as, for example, the Americans or the Italians; in the second one, they identify
selves with the past tribal (ethnic) bureaucracy as the Irish Americans or the
Jewish Americans; and in the third one, they identify selves with the religious
bureaucracy as the Catholic Christians or the Sunni Muslims.
Although the Muslims welcome and warmly embrace newcomers into their community,
they expect that the newcomers will become new kind of persons with Islamic
convictions and habits, and rather sooner than later. Life cycle stages are
junctions at which both the structure and dynamic of every cultural life
intersect. Consequently, all cultures have rites of passage from one stage to
another, whether they occur in religious or in secular social spheres, or in
both together. The Muslims have no a formal rite of passage for entry into their
audlthood. To become a Muslim, an individual need only utter sincerely that
"There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the messenger of God". It is usual for
an uncircumcised adult male convert to Islam to undergo the circumcision rite
and to change his present name for the Arabic one.
Islamic rites of passage begin at birth and continue to death, and they are
mirror many of those of the Jews and the Hindus. Thus, upon the birth of child
someone prays in the infant's ear, and at the seventh day, the ceremony of
naming the baby is conducted; the latter consists of the animal sacrifices and
of shaving the baby's tuft of hair. When a child begins to talk, simple words
and phrases are taught, then, training in reading and reciting the Koran starts.
Boys an girls may play together, but they are separated as puberty approaches.
Circumcision of boys is often performed in infancy, but some undergo it at age
seven and some -- at the onset of puberty. The latter case accompanies with
reciting the Koran, reasoning that knowledge of God's teaching enables the boy
to distinguish between right and wrong, which, going along with his bodily male
potency, shapes him as a full-fledge member of the Muslim community, who from
now on enjoys all his rights and responsibilities.
Although all humans are born, develop, mature, pass through a marriage, grow
old, and die, the Muslims assert that this natural cycle of human life can be
reinforced in the specifically Islamic way. But so far, we saw nothing peculiar
in the Arabic customs that the Aryan nomads would not have also. The men of the
latter, for instance, have long been looking upon their women like some kind of
cattle, which was paid for and should be cared for (because it is a necessary
"evil", without which the men would become extinct), but ruled with the iron
fist.
Traditionally, the Muslim parents forbid their daughters to go out looking for
husbands, though they may express their preferences and may even refuse someone
selected for them; but it is a duty of the parents to be matchmakers for their
children. A man might propose marriage, though not directly to the prospective
bride but to her father or other male guardian. The fiancé and fiancée are not
allowed to be alone until marriage, though they may sometimes enjoy the company
of each other in the presence of parents.
Islamic propriety prescribes certain degree of close blood relationship, within
which a man and a woman may not marry, and thus, to be socially associated with
each other, probably because not only the cattle suffers from hemophilia and
degenerates without expanding the genome pool. The Koran does not prohibit
socialization of women among themselves or of men among themselves. However, it
is customary for the Muslim women to eat in a separate room when non-relatives
arrive for a fist.
Because in agricultural and nomadic societies a rare woman works outside of her
home, the division of labor between husband and wife (and flowing out of it
certain rights and responsibilities of the family members) are more clear than
that one in an industrial society, where a woman often necessitated to be the
breadwinner.
The Koran permits to a Muslim man to marry up to four wives concurrently, if he
may afford to treat them equally. Women are prohibited to have several husbands
at a time. A Muslim man may marry a non-Muslim woman, but a Muslim woman may not
marry a non-Muslim man. However, both genders can have a divorce. The commoners
and laborers cannot afford several wives, and therefore, their families are
usually monogamous. However, it was a common practice in the early epoch of
Islamic expansion when many men died young in the battles and the Muslim
societies had a significant surplus of women. So, the differences of social
status of the Muslim women and men are rather economic and temporary than
ideological and permanent as the Islamic ideologist claim through the Koran and
its superstructure.
At the funeral and memorial observances, the Muslims usually recite the
thirty-sixth chapter of the Koran, which vividly summarizes this stage of life
cycle as follows -- "Who will revive these bones when they have rotten away?
Say: He will revive them Who produced them at the first, for He is Knower of
every creature. (36:77-78)" The body of the deceased must have its final bath
and be wrapped in a plain white cloth. The coffin is not necessary, because the
burial must be finished the same day as the death occur, but not after sundown
-- probably that the soul receiving angels would not dispatch mistakenly the
deceased into the hell. The funeral prayer consists of four parts. When the
funeral procession arrives at the gravesite, the first chapter of the Koran is
recited. The traditional grave is to two meters deep with a shelf hollowed out
on one side, where the deceased is placed with the head directed toward Mecca.
After the day of burial, the relatives of the deceased usually have a
commemorating reception. The Egyptian Muslims hold such an observance on the
fortieth day after the death.
As you might notice, there are many customs common to the Jews, Christians,
Muslims, and Hindus, because people have been framing their culture, their
ideology based on the economic necessities, and not vice versa. And the economic
conditions of the nomadic life have been pretty much the same across the board,
as to the Hebrew nomads as well as to the Arabic nomads. Therefore, the only
real difference between Koran and the Christian Bible consists in what a group
of nomads adjusted the Jewish Bible and the Hindu Scriptures for their own
needs. Koran is a result of an adjustment of the Jewish Bible and the Hindu
Scriptures to the needs of the Arabic nomads who wanted to become the upper
class. The Christian Bible is a result of an adjustment of the Jewish Bible and
the Hindu Scriptures to the needs of the Aryan nomads who wanted to become the
upper class.
The Bibles and Koran are the ideological books, not only by virtue of their
content but also in terms of their use by the Jews, Christians, and Muslims. The
Bibles and Koran are read or cited in all services of public worship, their
words shape the basis for preaching and instruction, and they are used in
private devotion and study. The language of the Bibles and Koran has formed the
prayers, liturgy, and hymnody of the Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Without
these books, these three religious denominations would have been virtually
speechless.
The external and internal importance of these books differs considerably among
the various groups (sects) of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. However, all
adherents ascribe some degree of authority to it. Many confess that their Book
(Bible or Koran) is the full and sufficient guide in all matters of faith and
practice because it is the direct Word of God. Others view the authority of
their Book in the light of tradition, or the continuous belief and practice of
their congregation since apostolic (prophetic) times.
Early Christianity inherited from Judaism and took for granted a view of the
Scriptures as authoritative. No formal doctrine of the inspiration of Scripture
was initially propounded, as was the case with Islam, which held that the Koran
was handed down directly from heaven. However, Christians generally believed
that the Bible contained the Word of God as communicated by his Spirit – first,
through the patriarchs and prophets, and then, through the apostles. Indeed, the
writers of the New Testament books appealed to the authority of the Hebrew
Scriptures to support their statements about Jesus Christ.
The actual doctrine of the inspiration of the Bible by the Holy Spirit and the
infallibility of its words arose as the biblical criticism of the 19th
century. This doctrine holds that God is the author of the Bible in such a way
that the Bible is His Word. Many hypotheses explaining the doctrine have been
suggested by the Jewish and Christian ideologists. The hypothesis range from a
direct, divine, verbal dictation of the Scriptures to an illumination that aided
the inspired writer to understand the truth he expressed, whether this truth was
revealed to him or he learned it through experience.
The doctrine of infallibility in the Christian theology stated that in matters
of faith and morals the clerical bureaucracy is protected from real error by
divine dispensation (distribution of God’s mercies) to its teachers-bureaucrats
as well as to its lay-students. The doctrine is generally associated with the
Roman Catholic Church, but it is also applied to the Orthodox Church and to the
Orthodox Synagogue. The doctrine is widely rejected by Protestants on the
grounds that only God can be described as infallible.
The Roman-Catholic ideologists asserted that the entire church (as a society of
the clerical bureaucrats and lay-members) is infallible. It cannot err in
matters of faith because, from bishops to laity, it shows universal agreement in
matters of faith and morals. However, the church takes into its considerations
only the deeds of its bishops and other bureaucrats, leaving its lay-members
aside from its policies that touch their faith and morals. Only the following
persons in the church (those who hold its highest bureaucratic positions) are
believed (by the same bureaucrats) to proclaim the Christian doctrine
infallibly:
1) the entire body of bishops in union with the Pope (the bishop of Rome) when
it teaches with moral unanimity;
2) the ecumenical council that receives papal approval;
3) the Pope alone, under certain conditions.
According to the definition, promulgated in 1870 by the First Vatican Council,
the Pope exercises an infallible teaching office only when:
he speaks ex cathedra, that is, in his official capacity as pastor and
teacher;
he speaks with the manifest intention of binding the entire church to
acceptance;
the matter pertains to faith or morals taught as a part of divine revelation
handed down from apostolic times.
The church bureaucrats have never considered the Pope as infallible in his
personal or private views. Since the middle of the 19th century, only
two ex cathedra pronouncements have been made in the Roman Catholic
Church:
the definition of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception in 1854 by Pope Pius
IX;
the definition of the Assumption of the Virgin in 1950 by Pope Pius XII.
Proponents of the infallibility doctrine do not regard this doctrine as
something miraculous or as a second sight. Rather, they considered the doctrine
as a grace, or a divine gift that is grounded in their ideology. Proponents of
the infallibility doctrine pointed to many scriptural passages, such as the
farewell discourses in John, especially the promise of the Spirit of truth (John
14:17, 15:26, and 16:13). They hold that the church (a society of believers)
derives this gift from God, who alone is the ultimate source of infallibility.
The infallibility doctrine rooted in the Bible and in the ancient traditions of
the church, neither of which can be contradicted. Therefore, the clerical
bureaucrats consider the infallibility doctrine as a gift that they ought to
exercise with the utmost care in the service of God and to exclude the novel
doctrines and other innovations from the pondering of the lay-members.
On the other hand, the opponents of the infallibility doctrine quick to point
out that the church (a society of its believers) lives and acts in this world
and among the larger society of unbelievers. The church is a society inside the
larger society, and therefore, it must live by the laws of this larger society,
which has own bureaucracy (military and civil). Besides, the above mentioned
passages of John bestow the full and direct authority on the
individual-believer, not on the middleman-bureaucrat. In John 14:15-17,
15:26-27, 16:13, a biblical author said:
"If you love me, you will obey what I command. And I will ask the
Father, and He will give you another Counselor to be with you forever – the
Spirit of truth. The world cannot accept him, because it neither sees him nor
knows him. But you know him, for he lives with you and will be in you…. When the
Counselor comes, whom I will send to you from the Father, the Spirit of truth
who goes out from the Father, he will testify about me; but you also must
testify, for you have been with me from the beginning…. But when he, the Spirit
of truth, comes, he will guide you into all truth. He will not speak on his own;
he will speak only what he hears, and he will tell you what is yet to come".
What these passages are all about is that when the individual becomes
reasonable, he surrenders to the society (which acts through bureaucrats) a part
of his individual rights that concern his long run interests. This part of his
former rights turns into his present responsibilities. Only that part of his
individual rights that concern his short-run interests stays as his present
individual rights because it will not have time to be converted into the rights
of the society. Otherwise, the individual will dissolve into the society and the
latter will become the individual or both will be annihilated. Thus, the
individual will have full authority. The problem is that he will have it only
when the Counselor (the Spirit of truth, the Reason) will arrive onto him. Until
then, the individual is under the guidance of the clerical (ideological)
bureaucrats, and the latter, when they are weak, may be under the guidance of
the military and civil bureaucrats.
Nevertheless, who and how will define when an individual become reasonable? Of
course, the individual’s self-assertiveness is the final judge of his maturity.
However, the society also must check upon an individual’s readiness to be a
full-fledged citizen, and the best society devises the best hierarchical system
of its bureaucracy for this purpose. The best bureaucracy is one which does not
hinder the development of the individual through concealing information and
pretending to be knowledgeable of all truth, like those Communist and
Nationalist leaders, who took Moses for their model. Therefore, the system of
the bureaucracy should be based on the merits of the individuals, who will
become the bureaucrats, in order that they can help others to fulfil themselves
and to be happy (without making others miserable).
The importance of their Books among the Jews, Christians, and Muslims may be
explained broadly in their external and internal influence. The external
influence lies in the power of custom (creed and tradition). The religious
groups confess that their Books guide them through the centuries. In one sense a
religious community is the author of its Scriptures, having developed them,
cherished them, used them, and eventually canonized them as the Book (that is,
developed a list of bureaucratically approved biblical books). However, the
internal influence of the Books can be seen in the power of their content on the
majority of the Jews, Christians, and Muslims. The ancient Jews, Christians, and
Muslims knew of many more religious books than the ones that constitute their
present Books. However, their Books had been cherished and used because of what
their authors said and how they said it. The clerical bureaucrats canonized
these Books because the authors of the books had been so popular (had been read
and believed so widely). Thus, the external tradition converges with the
internal creed (system of beliefs), and we should acknowledge that the Books of
the Jews, Christians, and Muslims truly are the foundation of their ideologies
and customs.
It is commonly known that the Bibles and Koran, in hundreds of different
translations, are the most widely distributed books in human history. Moreover,
in all their forms, the Books have been enormously influential, and not only
among the religious communities that hold them sacred. The cultural development
of whole continents was deeply indebted to biblical themes, motifs, and images.
Martin Luther’s translation of the Bible into German (that was completed in
1534) started the Protestant Revolution against the papal authority and the
infallibility of the clerical bureaucracy. The latter, in its turn, prompted the
questioning of the infallibility of the military and civil bureaucracies and the
development of the system of checks and balances among the bureaucrats.
It is remarkable that Christianity includes within its Bible the entire
scriptures of a competing ideology, Judaism. The term Old Testament (from Latin,
testament means ‘covenant’) came to be applied to those Scriptures based
on the writings of Paul and others. These early Christians distinguished between
the "Old Covenant" that God made with the patriarchs and Moses, and the "New
Covenant" established through Jesus Christ (Heb. 8:7). It is because the
founders of the Christian Church claimed the authority of the New Testament
based on the predictions of some prophets of the Old Testament, that the latter
was included in the Christian Bible. However, what was special about those Old
Covenants? There were nine of them until Moses died, and several more after
that. The Covenants are the real issue of the Bible, because all authorities are
derived from them. However, before we look at the essence of the Book, we should
ponder on its form.
The Old Testament may be viewed from many different perspectives. From the
viewpoint of literature, the Old Testament is an anthology, a collection of many
different books. The Old Testament is by no means a unified book in terms of
authorship, date of composition, or literary type; instead, it is a virtual
mini-library.
From the external point of view that looks upon the books of the Old
Testament as a mini-library, its component parts may be identified as laws,
narratives, poetry, prophetic works, or apocalypses. Most of these are broad
categories that include various distinct types (genres) of literature that meant
to influence the reader’s mind from different sides – through his conscious and
through his subconscious. The books of law and historical narratives were
intended to influence the reader’s conscious. The books of poetry, prophecies,
and apocalypses were intended by their writers to influence the reader’s
subconscious. None of these genres are limited to the Old Testament; all genres
are found in other ancient literature, especially that of Mesopotamia. Certain
types, such as letters (epistles), autobiography, drama, and satire did not find
their way into the Old Testament. To be more interesting, some of the Old
Testament books were written in several literary genres. For example, Exodus
contains narrative, laws, and poetry; most prophetic books include narratives
and poetry in addition to prophesies as such.
Most of the Old Testament books are narratives; that is, they report the events
of the past. If they have a plot, characterization of the participants, and a
description of the setting where the events occurred, then they are stories. On
the other hand, many narratives of the Old Testament are histories – although
they do not fit the present scholarly definition of the term ‘history’. A
history is a written narrative of the past that is guided by the facts, as far
as the writer can determine and interpret them, and not by some aesthetic,
religious, or other ideological consideration. However, most of the "historical"
books have been written by the victors, who would likely to be bias to
themselves and prejudiced against their foes. The historical narratives of the
Old Testament are popular rather than critical works, because the writers often
used hear-says that passed through many non-eyewitnesses. Moreover, all these
narratives were written for an ideological purpose – to persuade the reader in
something that was important to the writer. For instance, such books as Genesis
through Nehemiah (except 2 Samuel and 1 Kings) can be called the histories of
the divine dispensation of the clerical authorities. The authors of these books
were primarily concerned with showing how God was active in human events and how
He managed the dispensation of the authorities on the clerical bureaucrats. The
so-called Throne Succession history of David (2 Samuel and 1 Kings) comes from
the authors who were more concerned about the origin of the military and civil
authorities. The writers were sensitive to the details of historical events and
characters, and they interpreted the course of affairs in the light of human
motivations and interests. Nonetheless, they could see the hand of God moving
behind the scenes of those human interests.
Other narrative books (such as Ruth, Jonah, Esther, Tobit, Judith, Susanna, and
Bel and the Dragon) are short didactic stories. They were designed to teach the
reader that it is in his interest to go along with the bureaucrats, anointing by
God. It is likely that such books developed from folktales or legends. The book
of Genesis was composed (as most of the other narrative books), of numerous
individual stories, most of which were written from independent oral
storytellers. The patriarchal stories in Genesis have been called legends,
sagas, and family-tribe stories. Many of them were designed to teach to be
"politically correct".
The poetic books of the Old Testament include Job, Psalms, Proverbs,
Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, and in the deutero-canonical books and the
Apocrypha, Sirach and the Prayer of Manasseh. Hebrew poetry has two major
characteristics – one is parallelism of lines or other parts. For example, the
meaning of one line may be restated or paralleled by a second line, as in Ps.
70:1:
"Hasten, O Lord, to save me;
O Lord, come quickly to help me".
These two lines are synonymous. On the other hand, the second line in the unit
may state the positive side of the first line’s point, and visa versa, as in
Prov. 13:21:
"Misfortune pursues the sinner,
but prosperity is the reward of the righteous".
Parallelism can extend in some instances to three or more lines, and its
function (as any repetition) – to ease the remembrance. The other major feature
of Hebrew poetry is rhythm, which has been based on the number of accents in
each line. One of the more easily recognized meters is that of the qina, in
which the first line has three beats or accented syllables and the second line,
has two.
The poetic books include diverse genres, but the most typical are the various
songs of worship (Psalms) and wisdom poetry. Moreover, the Bible contains one
book of love poetry, the Song of Songs. This lyrical poetry meant to be sung.
Many of these songs are hymns-songs in praise of God and His works on behalf of
the Jews. Others are communal laments or complaint songs, which were
prayers-petitions that were sung by the Jews, who were faced with troubles.
The wisdom poetry includes collections of wisdom sayings and short poems, as in
the book of Proverbs, and long compositions such as Job, Ecclesiastes, and
Sirach. The shorter wisdom materials are proverbs, sayings, and admonitions,
commonly only two lines long. Most of them were undoubtedly popular sayings and
clichés; others were creative compositions. The subject matter of the wisdom
sayings ranges from practical advice how to live a good and successful life to a
reflection on the obedience to the divinely revealed law. The author of Job
concerned primarily with the question of the suffering of the righteous, and the
author of Ecclesiastes pondered sadly the meaning of life in the face of death.
Most of the prophetic books also were written in Hebrew poetry. Prophets were
known in the ancient Near East, and ancient Egyptian writers produced literary
works called ‘prophecies’; however, the Jews creatively changed the form of own
prophecies. Most Hebrew prophetic books contain three kinds of literature:
narratives, prayers, and prophetic speeches. The narratives mainly are stories
of prophets’ deeds on behalf of the Jews. These stories either attributed to the
prophet himself or told by some third person. They include vision reports,
reports of symbolic actions, accounts of prophetic activities such as conflicts
between the prophets and their opponents, and historical narratives or notes.
One book in the prophetic collection, Jonah, is actually a story about a
prophet, including only one line of prophecy as such (Jonah 3:4). The prayers
include hymns and petitions such as Jeremiah’s complaints.
Speeches prevailed in the prophetic literature, for the essence of prophetic
activity was to announce the word of God concerning the immediate future. The
most common pattern of the prophecies is the combination of punishment and
salvation. The prophecy usually gives reasons for the punishment – whether it
was injustice of the military and civil bureaucrats toward the lower class
people, or the clerical bureaucrats were arrogant to them, or when there were no
other means to persuade the political opponents. The prophecy spelled out the
kind of punishment that would fall down on the transgressor – whether it would
be military or natural disaster. The prophets usually announced about salvation
as about God’s impending intervention to rescue all Jewish believers. Most of
the prophetic speeches started from the words as revealed to the prophets by
God; usual formula was – "thus says the Lord".
The apocalypse (revelation), as a distinctive literary genre, developed among
the Jewish writers in their period of the post-Babylonian Captivity that lasted
from 586 to 538 BC. A revelation contains the disclosure of future events
through the description of a lengthy and detailed dream or vision report. It
makes use of highly symbolic and often bizarre images, which in turn are
explained and interpreted. Apocalyptic writings generally reflected the author’s
historical view of his own era as a time when the evil powers (Devil) were
gathering to make their final struggle against the good powers (God), after
which a new age would be established. Daniel, Isaiah, Zechariah, Ezekiel, and
two Esdras are such apocalyptic books.
During and after the Babylonian Captivity, some Jews learned the Middle Persian
and Parthian languages. Later, these Jews would become known as the Pharisees –
the learned ones in Farsi. The Pharisees were the Jewish sectarians, who
actively resisted (from the 2nd century BC) to the Greek influences
that threatened to undermine the ideology of the Mosaic laws and decrease the
Jews’ will-to-be the upper class. They originated as the Hasidic Jews. The
Pharisees wished that the clerical, military and civil bureaucrats were directed
and measured by the standard of the Mosaic laws, without regard for the priestly
and aristocratic Sadducees, who collaborated with the Greco-Macedonian
bureaucrats. The Medieval Christian ideologists drew the derivation of the name
Pharisees from the Hebrew word parash that means ‘to separate’. It was
very convenient for those ideologists "to separate" the staunch opponents of
Jesus from their flock. However, sectarians usually pick a name for own sect
that will reflect the gist of what they all about. Therefore, I think that the
Pharisees took their name from Parthian (Farsi or Parsi, a dialect of Iranian),
the language with which they did most of their works. These works were mainly in
apocalyptic genre and in the riverbed of the Zoroastrian and Manihean teachings.
By the way, the Latin word pars means ‘part’, and parsing means
‘to take word or sentence apart’.
Although Old Persian and Avestan had close affinity with Sanskrit or the Aryan
language, Middle Iranian was represented not only by Middle Persian and the
closely related Parthian language but also by several Central Asian tongues.
Parthian was the language of the Arsacid Parthian Empire (c. 250 BC – 226 AD).
Although Parthian is known mainly through inscriptions of the early kings of the
following Sassanid Persian Empire (226-641), Parthian declined when the Parthian
Empire expired. However, during the Arsacid period, Parthian influenced Persian.
Thus, the language of the Sassanid Persia was Middle Persian, often called
Pahlavi, the term that was usually applied to the form of the language used in
certain Zoroastrian writings. Middle Persian has a simpler grammar than Old
Persian and was usually written in an ambiguous script with multivalent letters,
adopted from Aramaic, which was the international language of the Persian and
Parthian empires. Middle Persian declined after the Arab conquest of Persia in
the 7th century. Consequently, these would-be Pharisees also learned
the Zoroastrian and Manichean teachings. Thus, between the 3rd
century BC and the 1st century AD, the Jewish writers produced
numerous other apocalyptic works that were never considered as canonical or
apocryphal. Among those writings were Enoch, the War of the Sons of Light and
the Sons of Darkness, and the Apocalypse of Moses.
Most Jewish and Christian ideologists agreed that the Jews had produced the
books of the Old Testament at the different places and in the period over a
millenium. Consequently, we may examine the books and their component parts in
terms of their authorship. Virtually all the books of the Old Testament went
through a long process of transmission and development before they were
collected and canonized. That process usually involved many people, such as
storytellers, authors, and editors. These ideologists had been constantly
monitoring upon the pulse of their listeners and readers with one prevailing
thought – how to provide the clerical bureaucrats with the best proof of their
authority to rule.
According to Jewish and Christian tradition, Moses was the author of the
Pentateuch, the first five books of the Bible. The tradition stemmed partially
from the Jewish designation of them as the books of Moses, but that meant
concerning Moses, because nowhere in the books themselves such a claim was made.
In the Middle Ages, Jewish scholars realized a problem with the tradition.
Although Deuteronomy (the last book of the Pentateuch) reports the death of
Moses, the Pentateuch is actually anonymous and composite work. The Pentateuch
was compiled on the basis of numerous duplications and repetitions, including
two different designations of the deity, two separate accounts of creation, two
intertwined stories of the flood, two versions of the Egyptian plagues, and many
others. Therefore, modern scholars have concluded that the writers of the
Pentateuch drew upon several different sources, each from a different writing
team and a different period.
The sources differ in vocabulary, literary style, and ideological perspective.
The oldest writers are the Jehovists (Yahwists), from their use of the divine
name Jehovah (Yahweh). Their works are usually attributed to the 10th
or 9th century BC, and they are mainly concerned with origin of the
clerical authority. The second team of writers is the Elohists, from their use
of the general name Elohim for God; their works are usually ascribed to the 8th
century BC and mainly concern with military bureaucracy. The next team is
Deuteronomists; their work was limited to that book and a few other passages.
This work is attributed to the late 7th century BC, and it mainly
concerns the civil bureaucracy. The last is the Priestly Writer, for his
emphasis on clerical law and other priestly concerns. His work is attributed to
the 6th or 5th century BC. The Jehovists included a full
narrative account from creation to the conquest of the Canaanites by the
Hebrews. The Elohists made the discrete narrative about different family-tribes;
their earliest material concerns Abraham. The Priestly Writer concentrated on
the covenant and the revelation of the law at Mount Sinai, beginning with a
narrative of the creation.
None of the writers of these documents were spontaneously creative authors.
Rather, they worked as editors who collected, and organized older material with
a general idea – to prove the right of the clergy to rule the Jewish society.
Being under the pressure of this necessity, as one recent view suggests, the
compilers of the Pentateuch collected and compiled the individual stories under
the headings of several major themes, such as Promise to the Patriarchs, Exodus,
Wandering in the Wilderness, Sinai, and Taking of the Land. Thus, the basic form
of Pentateuch took shape by about 1100 BC.
Legal matter is prominent in the Jewish Bible to such a degree that the term
Mosaic Laws or Torah is applied in Judaism to the first five books, and
in early Christianity to the entire Old Testament. Legal writings dominate in
the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers. The Greek translators of the Old
Testament called the fifth book of the Bible – Deuteronomy. From Greek, that
means ‘second law’, because it does contain numerous laws. Moreover, the Jewish
sect of Samaritans acknowledged only these Five Books, because they considered
them as reflecting the gist of their beliefs.
According to the Jewish and Christian ideologists, the will of God was revealed
to the Jews through Moses when the covenant was made at Mount Sinai. These
ideologists have recognized two major types of Mosaic laws– the direct
and the reflective. An example of direct laws is the Ten
Commandments. The direct laws usually found in collections and are short and
unambiguous statements of the will of God for the behavior of the Jews among
themselves and toward the non-Jews (Gentiles). The direct laws are either
positive commands or negative prohibitions.
On the other hand, reflective laws usually consist of two parts –
conditions and consequences. The first part states the conditions:
"If your very own brother, or your son or daughter, or the wife
you love, or your closest friend secretly entices you, saying, ‘Let us go and
worship other gods’".
The second part states the consequences:
"…do not yield to him or listen to him. Show him no pity. Do not
spare him or shield him. You must certainly put him to death. Your hand must be
the first in putting him to death, and then the hands of all the people. Stone
him to death, because he tried to turn you away from the Lord your God, who
brought you out of Egypt, out of the land of slavery. Then all Israel will hear
and be afraid, and no one among you will do such an evil thing again". Dt.
13:6,8-11).
The reflective laws are parallel in form, and frequently in content, to laws
found in the Code of Hammurabi and other ancient Near Eastern law codes.
In recent years, the books of Deuteronomy through 2 Kings were ascribed as a
unified account of the Jewish history from the time of Moses (c. 1250 BC) to the
Babylonian Captivity in 586 BC. Because the literary style and ideology are
similar to those of Deuteronomy, this account is called the Deuteronomistic
History. Based on the last events it reports, among other evidence, it seems to
have been written in Babylon about 560 BC. However, it is possible that the
basic concept of the historical proof of the right of the Jewish clerical
bureaucracy to rule was conceived earlier.
These "historic" writers intended to record the history of the Jews. They worked
as other historians would, by collecting and organizing older sources (written
and oral). They used materials of many kinds, including stories of the prophets,
earlier histories, and even court records. However, it is clear that they worked
similarly to the ideologists, who already had firm convictions about the course
and meaning of the events that only would be recorded. These biblical writers
expressed their convictions by the way they organized the material and by
placing speeches, which had been put into the mouths of the major characters (as
in Josh. 1). The writers believed that the Jewish clergy and other intellectuals
had fallen to the Babylonian military bureaucrats because of their disobedience
to Mosaic laws, especially in their worship to the false gods.
Virtually on all pages of the Old Testament, their authors called the attention
of the readers to the reality and importance of "history", as they knew it, for
their purpose, of course. The Pentateuch and the historical books contain
salvation histories; the prophets constantly refer to events of the past,
present, and future. The envisioned Jewish history of the Old Testament was
organized in a series of pivotal events or periods – the exodus (from the
family-tribe stories to the conquest of the Canaanites), the state and monarchy,
the Babylonian Captivity, and the return to Palestine with the restoration of
the Jewish clerical organization.
The idea of the complete sacred Jewish book dates at least from 621 BC. During
the reform of Josiah, the vassal-king of Judah, when the temple was being
repaired, the high priest Hilkiah discovered "the book of the law" (2 Kings 22).
The scroll was probably the central part of the present book of Deuteronomy.
Thereafter, the Hebrew Bible became the Holy Scripture, and it became such in
three stages. The sequence of becoming corresponds to the three parts of the
Hebrew canon: the Mosaic Laws (Torah), the Prophets, and the Writings. Based on
external evidence it seems clear that the Mosaic laws, became the Holy Scripture
between the end of the Babylonian exile (538 BC) and the separation of the
Samaritans from Judaism, probably by 300 BC. The Samaritans recognized only the
Mosaic laws as their Bible. The second stage was the canonization of the
Prophets. As the superscriptions to the prophetic books indicate, the recorded
words of the prophets came to be considered the Word of God. The second part of
the Hebrew canon was closed by the end of the 3rd century BC.
In the meantime, other books were being compiled, written, and used in worship
and study. By the time the book of Sirach was written (c. 180 BC), an idea of a
tripartite Bible had developed. The content of the third part, the Writings, was
formed after the fall of Jerusalem to the Romans in the year 70. By the end of
the 1st century, the rabbis in Palestine had established the final
list. Besides, most of the decisions had already been made in practice: the
Mosaic Laws, the Prophets, and most of the Writings had been serving as the
Scriptures for centuries. Controversy developed around only a few books in the
Writings, such as Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs. On the other hand, many
other religious books, also claiming to be the Word of God, were being written
and circulated. These included the books in the present Protestant Apocrypha,
some of the New Testament books, and many others. Consequently, the Jewish
bureaucrats tried to establish a Bible in accord with their basic interest – how
to prove their relationship to God and draw from this relationship their
authority to rule Jewish society.
The second canon (what is now the Roman Catholic version of the Old Testament)
was cooked first as a translation of the earlier Hebrew books into Greek. The
cooking process began in the 3rd century BC, outside of Palestine,
because Jewish communities in Egypt and Asia Minor needed the Scriptures in the
language of their milieu. The additional books in this Bible, including
supplements to older books, arose for the most part among such non-Palestinian
Jewish communities. By the end of the 1st century, when the earliest
Christian writings were being collected and disseminated, two versions of the
Holy Scriptures were already in existence – the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Old
Testament (known as the Septuagint). The major Greek version is called the
Septuagint (means ‘seventy’) because of the legendary 72 (on the manner of the
membership of Moses’ Council of Elders) Jewish ideologists, who translated the
Mosaic laws in the 3rd century BC. The legend is probably accurate
because the first Greek translation included the Mosaic laws and few other
books, and it was done in Alexandria in the 3rd century BC.
Nevertheless, only the Christian bureaucrats recognized the additional books of
the Septuagint. The writings of the Fathers of the Church contain numerous
different lists, and the longer of them prevailed.
The last major step in the history of the Christian canon took place during the
Protestant Reformation. When Martin Luther translated the Bible into German, he
rediscovered that the Old Testament had originated in Hebrew. He removed from
his Old Testament the books that were not in the Jewish Bible and established
them as the Apocrypha. This step was an effort to return to the presumed
earliest "purity" of the text, and to establish, in opposition to the inherited
authority of the church bureaucracy, the authority of the imaginary and "pure"
clerical bureaucrats, who were elected based on their merits.
All contemporary translators of the Bible attempt to recover and use the oldest
text, presumably closer to the original and "purer". However, the original
copies or autographs exist nowhere. There are hundreds of different manuscripts
that contain numerous variant readings; consequently, every attempt to determine
the "best" or "pure" text of a given book or verse must be based on the
interpretation of a clerical ideologist.
Concerning the Old Testament, the main distinction is between texts in Hebrew
and the versions or translations into other ancient languages. The most reliable
Hebrew texts are the Masoretic texts. They were produced by the Jewish
ideologists (called the Masoretes), who were active from the early Christian
centuries into the Middle Ages. They also provided the text with punctuation,
vowel points (the original of the Hebrew text contains only consonants), and
various notes. The standard printed Hebrew Bible of the present-day use is a
reproduction of a Masoretic text written in 1088. The manuscript (in the form of
a book or codex) is in the collection of the Saint-Petersburg Public Library.
Another Masoretic manuscript, the Aleppo Codex from the first half of the 11th
century, were chosen as the basis for a new publication of the text that has
been preparing at the Hebrew University in Israel. The Aleppo Codex is the
oldest manuscript of the entire Hebrew Bible; however, it dates from more than a
millennium after the latest biblical books were written and two millennia after
the earliest ones.
Most of the Jewish ideologists acknowledge the superiority (in several details)
of the Greek versions of the Old Testament to the Masoretic versions because the
former offer readings that are based on older Hebrew texts. Many of the Greek
manuscripts are much older than the manuscripts of the full Hebrew Bible; they
were included in copies of the entire Christian Bible that date from the 4th
century. The major manuscripts are the Codex Vaticanus (in the Vatican
Library), Codex Sinaiticus, and Codex Alexandrinus (both in the British Museum).
Numerous other Greek translations (such as of Aquila, Symmachus, Theodotion, and
Lucian) were made by the Fathers of the Church; thus, in the 3rd
century, the Christian ideologist Origen, after studying the problems, came up
with a solution. He prepared a Hexapla (from Greek, means ‘six parts’) – an
arrangement in six parallel columns of the Hebrew text, the Hebrew text
transliterated into Greek, Aquila, Symmachus, the Septuagint, and Theodotion.
There were other versions, such as the Syriac (of the 1st century),
the Old Latin (translated from the Greek Septuagint in the 2nd
century), and the Vulgate (translated from Hebrew into Latin by St. Jerome in
the 4th century).
Also, there were the versions of the Aramaic Targums. When Aramaic replaced
Hebrew as the language of everyday life in the Assyrian, Chaldean, Persian, and
Parthian empires, translations became necessary, first accompanying the oral
reading of Scriptures in the synagogue and later set down in writing. The
Targums were not literal translations; rather they paraphrased or interpreted
the original. The two major Targums are those that originated in Palestine and
those that were revised in Babylon.
Despite all differences in its form, the ideological content of the Old
Testament stays the same – to prove the authority of the bureaucracy. Taking
into consideration that the writers of the Five Books of Moses expressed the
gist of the Jewish ideology using Moses as their mouthpiece, we can look at this
ideology more carefully while taking Moses as our mouthpiece.
Despite the appearance of different conflicts (for example, two different
interpretations of creation are preserved side by side) the ideology of the Old
Testament is coherent and systematic. The most obvious ideological themes of the
Old Testament expressed the relations of the Jewish priests with Yahweh (the
personal name of God, the God of the Jews, of their world, and of their
history).
Two themes are fundamental to the Old Testament – covenants and laws, which are
closely related. Covenants refer to the pact between Yahweh (the
ideologists meant themselves – ‘the Jewish bureaucracy’) and Israel (they
meant ‘the middle and lower classes’) sealed at Mount Sinai. The language
concerning those covenants has much in common with that of ancient Near Eastern
treaties; both are sworn agreements sealed by oaths. The law was understood to
have been given as a part of the covenant, the means by which the Jewish
bureaucracy became and remained the "people of God" (they meant ‘the upper
class’). The law contains regulations for behavior in relation to other
peoples (they meant ‘Gentiles’) as well as rules concerning religious
practices and relations toward other fellow-Jews of the lower classes. The
latter part is far more important for the biblical ideologists because the
justice between the nations (class societies) is a prerogative of Yahweh
(the Jewish bureaucrats), but the justice between the fellow-Jews can be tested
through the righteousness of each Jew. That includes fairness in all affairs
among the Jews themselves, care for own weak, and the establishment of the
Just Jewish institutions.
People, in general, realize the vastness of God (Nature or Cosmos), a tiny
particle of which they are. Inability to understand all own internal and
external connections and mutual dependency evokes our fear. Exaggerated fear is
called superstition. Underestimated fear is called reckless bravado (machismo)
and moronic ignorance that usually leads to extreme atheism. As Spinoza said,
‘Ignoratio non est argumentum!’ In prehistoric times, among horticulturists and
nomads, the exaggerated fear prevailed; and the main reason for that state of
mind was their own ignorance. In any event, all tribes went through idolatry,
worshiping either to the articles of human handicraft or to the visible natural
objects. The Jewish patriarchs probably devoted themselves to the god of their
particular family-tribe. Each chieftain established a special attachment to a
particularly social power (god) that had helped his fathers, hoping that this
particular power also would protect and assist him and the members of his clan.
Thus, the Jewish ideology started as polytheism, and not until the prophets, did
the Jews explicitly deny that other gods existed and proclaimed that Yahweh
stood alone.
Immediately a question is popping up – why the monotheistic idea became the
central point of the Jewish ideology only from Moses? I think that the
transition from a tribe to a nation requires concentration of social power in
the central bureaucracy, and particularly, in a monarchical political leader,
like Moses. The Jewish ideologists described this transition from a tribe to a
nation through a series of covenants (agreements) with Father-God. That is why
Father, as the Jewish ideologists described Him in the Old Testament, summoned
to Himself one of Noah’s descendants, Abram, in order to deliver through him his
descendants to the real understanding of Himself. Thus, God formed an alliance
with Abram and his descendants. Abram first became teaching that God, the
creator of heaven end earth, is one in all His transformations. In the process
of this teaching, Abram’s authority increased and he became known to his
followers as Abraham. However, before making the covenant with Abraham, God made
several agreements with others.
At the beginning of this world, Father was the supreme governor over Adam and
Eve, not only because He was their creator, but also because they agreed
on His condition. The terms of His first covenant were next – He would give them
life in paradise, requiring from them only not to eat from the tree of knowledge
of good and evil. Adam and Eve broke this agreement. The matter of the problem,
of course, was not in that material apple, eating which would do you no physical
harm, but the problem was in that prohibition. If you broke an agreement through
breaking its forbidding (negative for you) part, thus rejecting the admission of
the supreme authority of your ally (in the negative, for you, part of the
agreement), then, you would voluntarily reject the positive (for you) part of
the agreement. Thus, you would deny not only his right to control you and to
command to you, but your own right to ask for his support.
Because the covenant with Adam lost its power (authority) and the situation
became "hot," requiring the Flood for the extermination of Adams’ sinful
descendants and the creation of the law-abiding people, Father made the new
agreement with Noah.
"Then God blessed Noah and his sons, saying to them, ‘Be fruitful
and increase in number and fill the earth. The fear and dread of you will fall
upon all the beasts of the earth and all the birds of the air, upon every
creature that moves along the ground, and upon all the fish of the sea; they are
given into your hands. Everything that lives and moves will be food for you.
Just as I gave you the green plants, I now give you everything.
‘But you must not eat meat that has its lifeblood still in it. And for your
lifeblood I will surely demand an accounting. I will demand an accounting from
every animal and from each man, too, I will demand an accounting for the life of
his fellow man.
‘However shed the blood of man, by man shall his blood be shed; for in the image
of God has God made man.
‘As for you, be fruitful and increase in number; multiply on the earth and
increase upon it.’" (Gen. 9:1-7).
Noah’s descendents multiplied without "sinning", but created the too powerful
Babylonian Empire. This empire became so powerful that could afford to build the
skyscraper of the Babel Tower, thus causing the jealousy of "God" (I mean ‘the
Jewish ideologists, who craved for that power’). What is the plausible solution
for this conflict? Of course, it is the self-distraction of the imperialistic
Babylonian bureaucracy, because it accumulated too many nations (class
societies) with different languages under its control. The excessive number of
languages transformed the order into the disorder, and "Father" (I mean ‘the
Jewish ideologists’) needed to resume a new covenant, now with Abram:
"On that day the LORD made a covenant with Abram and said, ‘To
your descendants I give this land, from the river of Egypt to the great river,
the Euphrates – the land of the Kenites, Kenizzites, Kadmonites, Hittites,
Perizzites, Rephaites, Amorites, Canaanites, Girgashites and Jebusites’." (Gen.
15:18-21).
Saying that, the Jewish ideologists realized that this agreement was unrealistic
one, because it lacked the negative part – Abram and his descendents had gotten
only the positive (for them) agreement, without paying anything for those lands
and slaves. Therefore, the ideologists were needy to create the second agreement
with Abram:
"When Abram was ninety-nine years old, the Lord appeared to him
and said, ‘I am God Almighty; walk before me and be blameless. I will confirm my
covenant between me and you and will greatly increase your numbers.’
Abram fell facedown, and God said to him, ‘As for me, this is my covenant with
you: You will be the father of many nations [class societies, VS]. No longer
will you be called Abram [from Hebrew means ‘exalted father’, VS]; your name
will be Abraham [means ‘the father of many’, VS], for I have made you a father
of many nations. I will make you very fruitful; I will make nations of you, and
kings will come from you. I will establish my covenant as an everlasting
covenant between me and you and your descendants after you for the generations
to come, to be your God and the God of your descendants after you. The whole
land of Canaan, where you are now an alien, I will give as an everlasting
possession to you and your descendants after you; and I will be their God.’
[One’s property is one’s means of existence (in the present, as well as in the
future, through one’s descendants) that one must defend against encroachments of
others. VS]
Then God said to Abraham, ‘As for you, you must keep my covenant, you and your
descendants after you for the generations to come. This is my covenant with you
and your descendants after you, the covenant you are to keep: Every male among
you shall be circumcised. You are to undergo circumcision, and it will be the
sign of the covenant between me and you. For the generations to come every male
among you who is eight days old must be circumcised, including those born in
your household or bought with money from a foreigner – those who are not your
offspring. Whether born in your household or bought with your money, they must
be circumcised. My covenant in your flesh is to be an everlasting covenant. Any
uncircumcised male, who has not been circumcised in the flesh, will be cut off
from his people; he has broken my covenant.’
God also said to Abraham, ‘As for Sarai your wife, you are no longer to call her
Sarai; her name will be Sarah [means ‘princess’, VS]. I will bless her and will
surely give you a son by her. I will bless her so that she will be the mother of
nations; kings of peoples will come from her.’
Abraham fell facedown; he laughed and said to himself, ‘Will a son be born to a
man a hundred years old? Will Sarah bear a child at the age of ninety?’ And
Abraham said to God, ‘If only Ishmael might live under your blessing!’ [Ishmael
was a son of Abram, who was born by Abram’ slave-woman. The Islamic ideologists
drew the line of Mohammed’s descent from Ishmael, and the Christian ideologists
drew Jesus’ descent from King David. No wonder that the product of the Semitic
Jewish ideologists (the Hebrew Scriptures) provided the foundation for the two
out of four world religions – Christianity and Islam. The other two world
religions (Hinduism and Buddhism) are the creatures of the Aryan ideologists.
VS]
Then God said, ‘Yes, but your wife Sarah will bear you a son, and you will call
him Isaac [means ‘laughter’, VS]. I will establish my covenant with him as an
everlasting covenant for his descendants after him. And as for Ishmael [means ‘a
hearer of God’], I have heard you: I will surely bless him; I will make him
fruitful and will greatly increase his numbers. He will be the father of twelve
rulers, and I will make him into a great nation. But my covenant I will
establish with Isaac, whom Sarah will bear to you by this time next year.’"
(Gen. 17:1-21).
It appears that the ‘father of many’ (Abraham) served to the Jewish ideologists
as a mouthpiece, through which they expressed own interests. Even before this
agreement, the earthly father (conscious Abraham) acknowledged the heavenly
father (subconscious Abraham) as his own overlord and hadn’t hesitated in the
existence of the latter. Acknowledging his own subconscious as the creator of
heaven and earth, the earthly father transferred himself from the state of the
hesitated and excited reason into the state of its stable faith, which usually
comes with old age. And such stabilizing faith of the earthly father (Abraham)
consisted not in that he believed in the existence of his own heavenly
reflection (God) but in that that his own subconscious promised him and his
descendants "bright future" in the Canaanites’ land. Our subconscious usually
reflects our present or past wishes and wants (interests). Thus, the positive
part of the agreement between God and Abraham reflected the Jewish ideologists’
will-to-take the Canaanites’ land and want-to-establish themselves as the upper
class. However, they did not wished-to-pay dearly for it; therefore, it would be
enough for the Jews to pay by the temporarily pain of circumcision for the
eternal stability of their minds (the will-to-be).
The Jewish ideologists were not interested in giving us the details of the
earthly father’s authority over his own family-tribe. However, it appears that
Abraham was the only interpreter of all tribal laws (civil as well as clerical),
and consequently, he was the supreme ruler in his tribe. However, it would be
impossible if his sons, relatives, and slaves did not follow his orders
(commands). Consequently, Abraham’s subjects could violate the tribal law only
in a case when they either would not submit to Abraham’s commands (i.e., would
acknowledge the alien gods) or would not be circumcised. Indeed, only Abraham
could tell them what God (Abraham’s subconscious) was and how they ought to
treat Him. Those subjects, who (after Abraham’s death) became Isaac’s subjects,
also could not be sinful while they had acknowledged Isaac’s authority and
followed his commands. The same string of reasoning follows toward the God’s
covenant with Jacob.
From how the Jewish ideologists had designed their Bible, we can see that God’s
agreement with Abraham had been resumed: first, with Abraham’s son, Isaac, and
then, with Isaac’s son, Jacob. The idea was that every generation of subjects
should actively and voluntarily confirm (ratify) their part of the covenant
(constitution); otherwise, they would be held for passive and inanimate objects.
The passive state of mind of the members of the lower classes would be
disgusting and repulsive not only for all members of the upper class, but also
for some intelligent members of the lower classes. That is why I think that a
constitution would be far better designed (as to reduce resistance of the lower
classes) if it has an amendment that would prescribe a confirmation of the
entire old constitution (or with some new amendments) by each new generation of
citizens. The latter regenerates approximately in 20 years; therefore, a
referendum about the constitution should be held once in every 20 years. Each
generation of citizens should actively express their will-to-be ruled under a
certain code of laws. Only then, they would know this code of laws, would act
according to it, and would feel themselves as free individuals who voluntarily
gave to certain individuals, chosen from themselves, the right to rule all of
them.
In the 8th covenant of God with Moses, the Jewish ideologists showed
own want-to-restore themselves as the upper class. In order to do that, the
Hebrews must alienate themselves from the rest of the Egyptian population,
causing them some trouble and stealing the gold, jewelry, and clothing from
them. Therefore, God promised easy exit from Egypt and emphasized the necessity
of the people’s unity through their mutual crime and the connection between
generations, as if sons should pay for the sins of their fathers.
"Then he said, ‘I am the God of your father, the God of Abraham,
the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob…And I will make the Egyptians favorably
disposed toward this people, so that when you leave you will not go
empty-handed. Every woman is to ask her neighbor and any woman living in her
house for articles of silver and gold and for clothing, which you will put on
your sons and daughters. And so you will plunder the Egyptians.’" (Exod. 3:6).
[As if the Hykso-Egyptians had not been plundering the poor Egyptians enough for
centuries. VS]
However, when the people that exited Egypt had felt themselves free and found
themselves burdened under the totalitarian rule of Moses, then, by Mount Sinai,
God offered them, through Moses, of course, to renew the old covenant in the
next words:
"Now if you obey me fully and keep my covenant, then out of all
nations you will be my treasured possession. Although the whole earth is mine,
you will be for me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation." (Exod. 19:5-6).
Hence, to the "bright future" of the "cannon fodder" in the Canaan land, the
Jewish ideologists generously added the state of being ‘a kingdom of priests,
and a holy nation’.
"The people all responded together, ‘We will do everything the
LORD has said." (Exod. 19:8).
In this last covenant, in the first time appears the expression – the ‘kingdom
of priests’. This expression means a State with the monarchical form of rule of
a high priest, who is the head not only of the clerical bureaucracy but is also
the head of the military and civil bureaucracies as well. Although God was the
supreme overlord of the Hebrews as their creator and ally, with whom Abraham,
Isaac, Jacob, and Moses concluded the treaties, all that (the act of creation
and the treaties) was in the past, but the power (the force and wisdom) is
necessary today. However, today, only that one possesses all of those qualities
to whom everyone transferred own will-to-rule (i.e., either Abraham, or Isaac,
or Jacob, or Moses, or, in short, a supreme lawgiver). And the latter will
define what is appropriate and decent in the service of God and what is not,
because only he heard the God’s word without a middleman, through his own
subconscious.
It seems to me that exactly because the Hebrews unanimously strike a bargain by
Mount Sinai with their leader – Moses, they constituted own kingdom of priests.
Precisely this event was implied by the Jewish ideologists, who cared more about
the military bureaucracy and who put words in the mouth of God, Who said to
Samuel, when the Hebrews asked to give them a material king:
"And the LORD told him: ‘Listen to all that the people are saying
to you; it is not you they have rejected as their king, but me’." (1Sam. 8:7).
And Samuel thus replied to the Hebrews:
"But when you saw that Nahash king of the Ammonites was moving
against you, you said to me, ‘No, we want a king to rule over us’ – even though
the LORD your God was your king. Now here is the king you have chosen, the one
you asked for; see, the LORD has set a king over you." (1Sam. 12:12-13).
It appears that exactly by Mount Sinai, the nomadic Habiru people crossed the
thin line in order to become the agricultural Hebrew people and transformed
themselves from tribal life to life as a nation by establishing the social
divisions among themselves and differentiating between clerical, military, and
civil bureaucracies.
"At that time I said to you, ‘You are too heavy a burden for me
to carry alone. The LORD your God has increased your numbers so that today you
are as many as the stars in the sky. May the LORD, the God of your fathers,
increase you a thousand times and bless you as he has promised! But how can I
bear your problems and your burdens and your disputes all by myself? Choose some
wise, understanding and respected men from each of your tribes, and I will set
them over you.’ You answered me, ‘What you propose to do is good’. So I took the
leading men of your tribes, wise respected men, and appointed them to have
authority over you – as commanders of thousands, of hundreds, of fifties and of
tens and as tribal officials. And I charged your judges at that time: Hear the
disputes between your brothers and judge fairly, whether the case is between
brother Israelites or between one of them and an alien. Do not show partiality
in judging; hear both small and great alike. Do not be afraid of any man, for
judgment belongs to God. Being me any case too hard for you, and I will hear it.
And at that time I told you everything you were to do." (Dt. 1:9-18).
This differentiation was expressed by the Jewish ideologists through the Mosaic
Laws, which largely prescribed from the 20th chapter of the Exodus
and to the end of the Pentateuch, i.e., until Moses’ death. A few of these laws
reflect the people’s long-term interests, and as such, are axiomatic or
essential, because they are obvious and are not require further proof of their
usefulness. And as the essential laws, they oblige people to respect them
because of their welfare and profit for all, and essentially, in all times.
Therefore, these laws were attributed to God Himself and called the moral laws
or the laws of nature. Such natural laws are the Ten Commandments, which
prescribe an individual that he/she ‘Honor your father and your mother, so that
you may live long in the land the LORD your God is giving you. You shall not
murder. You shall not commit adultery. You shall not steal. You shall not give
false testimony against your neighbor. You shall not covet your neighbor’s
house. You shall not covet your neighbor’s wife, or his manservant, or his
maidservant, his ox or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbor.’
(Exod. 20:12-17 or Dt. 5:16-21).
Other laws, which reflect middle and short-term interests of the majority of the
people, usually require that the leaders (lawgivers) give the people
explanations about usefulness of the proposed laws. Therefore, the Ten
Commandments, were written on the stone tablets and were kept in the Ark of the
Covenant; the rest of the laws were written in the Book of the Law, which was
placed "beside the Ark of the Covenant of the LORD your God." (Dt. 31:26). It
was done so that the middle and short-range laws, by necessity, could be
changed; however, the Ten Commandments could not be changed, hence, they were
put in the Ark.
All moral laws were considered by the Jewish ideologists as the Word of God, but
not vice versa. God’s words: "I kill, and I make alive; I wound, and I heal:
neither is there any that can deliver out of my hand," (Dt. 32:39) are the Word
of God, but not a law; it is just an establishment of a fact. The Word of God is
what God said by Himself onto an individual, through the individual’s
subconscious. However, what we have, came to us through the prophets and
ideologists. The Jewish ideologists have been calling the prophets’ books as the
Word of God, although these books contains only the God’s words that He said
onto the prophets and the words of the prophets themselves. Therefore, we have
to believe to the prophets that their memory and their interpretations were
correct. However it could be, we should look upon what the Jewish ideologists
supposed who have had the right of the interpretation of the already existing,
written Word of God.
It appears that, while Moses was alive, all rights to interpret the God’s Word
were concentrated in his hands. If it would be not so, then everybody would have
the right to interpret the Word of God. However, from Moses’ prohibition and
grave penalty for transgression of it we can see that the right of
interpretation belonged nor individuals nor their gatherings. Moses severely
prohibited to the private persons to communicate directly, and not through him
(Moses), with God.
"The LORD said to Moses, ‘I am going to come to you in a dense
cloud, so that the people will hear me speaking with you and will always put
their trust in you’. Then Moses told the LORD what the people had said. And the
LORD said to Moses, ‘Go to the people, and consecrate them today and tomorrow.
Have them wash their clothes and be ready by the third day, because on that day
the LORD will come down on mount Sinai in the sight of all the people. Put
limits for the people around the mountain and tell them, ‘Be careful that you do
not go up the mountain or touch the foot of it. Whoever touches the mountain
shall surely put to death. He shall surely be stoned or shot with arrows; not a
hand is to be laid on him. Whether man or animal, he shall not be permitted to
live. Only when the ram’s horn sounds a long blast may they go up to the
mountain.’ …The LORD replied, ‘Go down and bring Aaron with you. But the priests
and the people must not force their way through to come up to the LORD, or he
will break out against them.’ So Moses went down to the people and told them."
(Exod. 19:9-13,24-25).
The rebellion of Korah, Dathan, Abiram, and two hundred fifty elders
unambiguously confirmed that neither private persons nor their gatherings should
not claim that God could speak through them, and thus, they also would have the
right to interpret the God’s Word. The Jewish ideologists thus pictured the
resolution of this civil war:
"As soon as he [Moses, VS] finished saying all this [the
invective against Korah, Dathan, and Abiram and other rebels, VS], the ground
under them split apart and the earth opened its mouth and swallowed them, with
their households and all Korah’s men and all their possessions. They went down
alive into the grave, with everything they owned; the earth closed over them,
and they perished and were gone from the community. And fire came out from the
LORD and consumed the 250 men who were offering the incense." (Num. 16:33-35).
The savvy reader understands, of course, what lies behind this euphemistic
language and what the atrocities of a civil war actually mean. That the right to
interpret the Word of God did not belong to the appointed leaders either, we can
see from the analogous conflict between Moses (a political leader) – on the one
side and his brother Aaron (an appointed leader) together with their sister
Miriam – on the other side. The conflict arose when Aaron and Miriam imagined
that the political authority in a new agricultural society would still be based
on the family or tribal tights. The Jewish ideologists resolved this family feud
in such a manner:
"The anger of the LORD burned against them, and he left them.
When the cloud lifted from above the Tent, there stood Miriam – leprous, like
snow. Aaron turned toward her and saw that she had leprosy; and he said to
Moses, ‘Please, my lord, do not hold against us the sin we have so foolishly
committed. Do not let her be like a stillborn infant coming from its mother’s
womb with its flesh half eaten away.’ So Moses cried out to the LORD, ‘O God,
please heal her!’ The LORD replied to Moses, ‘If her father had spit in her
face, would she not have been in disgrace for seven days? Confine her outside
the camp for seven days; after that she can be brought back.’ So Miriam was
confine outside the camp for seven days." (Num. 12:9-15)
Thus, from these sides, the absolute monarchical power of a political leader was
secured; but with the competition of the other political leaders (prophets, one
of whom Moses was) the situation was more complicated. Because the Word of God
was that word, which was considered as the God’s word by the true
political leader (true prophet), consequently, we (the people) can
believe in the Word of God only then, when we surely know who the hell is
the true prophet.
The Hebrews became religious (subconscious) believers into Moses’ doctrine
apparently only after his death and only after they really captured the
Canaanite land, which was promised them by God through Moses and their
forefathers – Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Therefore, the Jewish ideologists
prescribed to the Jews two signs, by which the Jews should discern a real
political leader (prophet), namely – if he has been foreseeing the future and if
he has been believing in the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
"If a prophet, or one who foretells by dreams, appears among you
and announces to you a miraculous sign or wonder, and if the sign or wonder of
which he has spoken takes place, and he says, ‘Let us follow other gods’ (gods
you have not known) [the ideologists meant you did not hear from them, because
you did not "know" their god either, VS] ‘and let us worship them,’ you must [!]
not listen to the words of that prophet or dreamer. The LORD your God is testing
you to find out whether you love him with all your heart and with all your soul.
It is the LORD your God you must follow, and him you must revere. Keep his
commands and obey him; serve him and hold fast to him. That prophet or dreamer
must be put to death, because he preached rebellion against the LORD your God,
who brought you out of Egypt and redeemed you from the land of slavery; he has
tried to turn you from the way the LORD your God commanded you to follow. You
must purge the evil away from among you." (Dt. 13:1-5).
"If what a prophet proclaims in the name of the LORD does not take place or come
true, that is a message the LORD has not spoken. That prophet has spoken
presumptuously. Do not be afraid of him." (Dt. 18:22).
"But a prophet who presumes to speak in my name anything I have not commanded
him to say, or a prophet who speaks in the name of other gods, must be put to
death." (Dt. 18:20).
However, what does it mean to "speak in the name of other gods"? Alternatively,
what does it mean "does not take place or come true" after the words of a
prophet had been spoken? For, it is highly arguable what "took place" and what
did not, what "came true" and what did not. Indeed, nearly all forecasters
predicted the future in the vague words and riddles, because they have seen or
heard God either in their night-dreams or in their daydreams and nobody else
could corroborate their visions. Therefore, to discern a real prophet we
(the people) should judge upon his words only consciously (reasonably), and it
means – to have our judgement only posteriori, i.e., only after
the predicted future becomes the past. Thus, the books of those prophets, whom
the Jews had killed for their predictions, later, when the predicted events
became useful to consider as the materialized ones, then those books were
declared by the Jewish ideologists as the really prophetic, and
consequently, the Word of God.
From the following citation, we can conclude that, while Moses was alive, the
interpretation of the Word of God did not belong to other political leaders
(prophets) also:
"At once the LORD said to Moses, Aaron and Miriam, ‘Come out to
the Tent of Meeting, all three of you.’ So the three of them came out. Then the
Lord came down in a pillar of loud; he stood at the entrance to the Tent and
summoned Aaron and Miriam. When both of them stepped forward, he said, ‘Listen
to my words: ‘When a prophet of the LORD is among you, I reveal myself to him in
visions, I speak to him in dreams. But is not true of my servant Moses; he is
faithful in all my house. With him I speak face to face, clearly and not in
riddles; he sees the form of the LORD. Why then were you not afraid to speak
against my servant Moses?"" (Num. 12:4-8).
Thus, all competing (political) leaders (prophets) were ruthlessly removed from
the scenery of the present life. Those appointed leaders (like the seventy
elders in their prophetic sayings) were instigated and inspired by Moses. It can
be seen from the episode when the Hebrews craved for the Egyptian food:
"So Moses went out and told the people what the LORD had said. He
brought together seventy of their elders and had them stand around the tent.
Then the LORD came down in the cloud and spoke with him, and he took of the
Spirit that was on him and put the Spirit on the seventy elders. When the Spirit
rested on them, they prophesied, but they did not do so again. However, two
men, whose names were Eldad and Medad, had remained in the camp. They were
listed among the elders, but did not go out to the tent. Yet the Spirit also
rested on them, and they prophesied in the camp. A young man ran and told Moses,
‘Eldad and Medad are prophesying in the camp’. Joshua son of Nun, who had been
Moses’ aide since youth, spoke up and said, ‘Moses, my lord, stop them!’ But
Moses replied, ‘Are you jealous for my sake? I wish that all the LORD’s people
were [such, VS] prophets and that the LORD would put his Spirit on them!’ Then
Moses and the elders of Israel returned to the camp. Now a wind went out from
the LORD and drove quails in from the sea. It brought them down all around the
camp to about three feet above the ground, as far as a day’s walk in any
direction." (Num. 11:24-31).
So, it appears that Moses was the only herald of the God’s Word because the
Jewish ideologists assumed that there should be only one political leader while
a nation is under construction. This idea has a sense because a newly born (and
unified under one leadership) nation has more chances to survive as a nation
among competing (for the territory and slaves) nations. Therefore, only Moses
had the right to interpret the Word of God; and consequently, this right did not
belong either the private individuals or their gatherings, either the appointed
leaders or the political ones (prophets). Only Moses had the sovereign power,
for not Aaron but only Moses got the supreme power from God; and there, where
one man defines the form of a future State, he necessarily carries out the
control over the religious and civil matters (including the law giving and law
enforcing).
After Moses’ death, the interpretation of the God’s Word transferred to the high
priest, Eleazar. It follows from the 8th covenant, in which the
Hebrew State was called as a kingdom of priests; and such terminology is usually
in use when the ideologists assumed that the supreme civil power belongs to the
office of the high priest. That the civil and military bureaucrats were under
the guidance of the religious bureaucrats can be seen from calling Joshua to
supervise over the civil and military matters:
"So the LORD said to Moses, ‘Take Joshua son of Nun, a man in
whom is the spirit, and lay your hand upon him. Have him stand before Eleazar
the priest, and the entire assembly and commission him in their presence. Give
him some of your authority so the whole Israelite community will obey him. He
is to stand before Eleazar the priest, who will obtain decisions for him by
inquiring of the Urim before the LORD. At his [Eleazar’s, VS] command he
[Joshua, VS] and the entire community will go out, and at his command they will
come in.’ Moses did as the LORD commanded him. He took Joshua and had him stand
before Eleazar the priest and the whole assembly. Then he laid his hands on him
and commissioned him, as the LORD instructed through Moses." (Num. 27:18-23).
It is clear that only the high priest could communicate with God through the
sacred object, which he had worn on his chest (Urim). Consequently, only the
high priest (Eleazar) could interpret the Word of God and, in the name of God,
to reign all the Hebrews. The high priest (Eleazar) would "obtain decisions" and
the president (presiding over the civil bureaucrats) and commander-in-chief
(heading the military bureaucrats) – in this particular case, Joshua – should
execute those decisions. The expression – "give him some of your authority" –
shows that the formal head of the civil and military bureaucracy (Joshua) had
not had the supreme power and was in service, first, to Moses, and then, to
Eleazar. Thus, nearly for two centuries after Moses’ death and until the
inauguration of the king Saul, the Hebrews had had the kingdom of priests. In
this time, called the times of the Judges, the supreme civil and military power
was in the hands of the heads of the clerical bureaucracy, who had the right to
interpret the Word of God. In accord with the 8th covenant with God,
the Hebrews have become the kingdom of priests and should stay as such one until
the people themselves would change the form of their State, with God’s
permission, of course. Although, during the 12th and 11th
centuries BC, the Philistines and Canaanites were generally subdued, the
international climate changed for the worse for the Hebrews. The Egyptians and
the Assyrians overcame their respective Dark Ages and moved forward for a new
quest for Empire.
"After that whole generation had been gathered to their fathers,
another generation grew up, who knew neither the LORD nor what he had done for
Israel. Then the Israelites did evil in the eyes of the LORD and served the
Baals… They provoked the LORD to anger because they forsook him and served Baal
and the Ashtoreths. In his anger against Israel the LORD handed them over to
raiders who plundered them. He sold them to their enemies all around, whom they
were no longer able to resist. Whenever Israel went out to fight, the hand of
the LORD was against them to defeat them." (Judges, 2:10-15).
At the end of the 11th century BC, the Hebrews virtually refused to
obey the commands of the high priest and only recognized him as a formal head of
their State, like the present-day British Queen, who serves basically for
ceremonial purposes. The internal and external unrest required a more capable
and direct leader, whom the Hebrews could respect as a military hero. When they
were besieged by the nomads from the north, the Assyrians from the east, and the
Egyptians from the south, then they expected the message of the God’s will not
from the high priest but from the local political leaders (prophets). Thus, the
latter became the actual judges of the Hebrews. It was happening because the
divisions between the clerical, civil, and military bureaucrats were not defined
in the erected at the Mount Sinai the constitution of the kingdom of the
priests. The officials, who should execute the laws and punish the
transgressors, were not defined; therefore, the punishment depended on the mob
and each mobster decided the fate of a convict based on own mood, which largely
depended on the opinion of the local leader ("kulak" in Russian, "prophet" in
Greek). Thus, gradually, the prophets became the reigning power over the Hebrew
crowd.
{The same situation of the actual transfer of power in the hands of the local
leaders a la Rasputin occurred in Russia after 1904, when she was
defeated by Japan, Stolipin’s privatization of the state’s lands was in
progress, and the corruption of the central bureaucracy reached its apogee.
Another time it occurred after her defeat in Afghanistan in 1980s. This state of
the Russian minds is still in progress. The absolutism either has to be
victorious and expansionistic or people withdraw their hopes (for better
life) and trust (that with the hereditary bureaucracy they can achieve
that better life) from the central bureaucracy and transfer their trust onto the
local leaders.}
At the end of the 11th century BC, the Hebrew State was between a
rock and a hard place; to defend themselves effectively, the Hebrews needed a
unified (and therefore, strong and efficient) military bureaucracy. Gradually,
the military bureaucrats prevailed over the clerical and civil bureaucrats.
Thus, the supreme power of God, realized through a high priest, gradually
transferred onto the military leader (king).
"When Samuel grew old, he appointed his sons as judges for
Israel…. But his sons did not walk in his ways. They turned aside after
dishonest gain and accepted bribes and perverted justice. So all the elders of
Israel gathered together at Ramah. They said to him, ‘You are old, and your sons
do not walk in your ways; now appoint a king to lead us, such as all other
nations have’. But when they said, ‘Give us a king to lead us,’ this displeased
Samuel; so he pray to the LORD. And the LORD told him: ‘Listen to all that the
people are saying to you; it is not you they have rejected as their king, but
me. As they have done from the day I brought them up out of Egypt until this
day, forsaking me and serving other gods, so they are doing to you. Now listen
to them; but warn them solemnly and let them know what the king who will reign
over them will do.’
Samuel told all the words of the LORD to the people who were asking him for the
king. He said, ‘This is what the king who will reign over you will do: He will
take your sons and make them serve with his chariots and horses, and they will
run in front of his chariots. Some he will assign to be commanders of thousands
and commanders of fifties, and others to plow his ground and reap his harvest,
and still others to make weapons of war and equipment for his chariots. He will
take your daughters to be perfumers and cooks and bakers. He will take the best
of your fields and vineyards and olive groves and give them to his attendants.
He will take a tenth of your grain and of your vintage and give it to his
officials and attendants. Your menservants and maidservants and the best of your
cattle and donkeys he will take for his own use. He will take a tenth of your
flocks, and you yourselves will become his slaves. When that day comes, you will
cry out for relief from the king you have chosen, and the LORD will not answer
you in that day.’
But the people refused to listen to Samuel. ‘No!’ they said. ‘We want a king
over us. Then we will be like all the other nations, with a king to lead us and
to go out before us and fight our battles.’" (1Sam. 8:1-20).
It can be seen from here that the judicial power was also submitted to the
office of the king; and it meant that a king and his staff would judge the
Hebrews, i.e., trying the laws to the people’s deeds and interpreting the laws.
Consequently, the right to interpret the laws was shifted to the office of the
king. Because the Hebrews did not know other laws beside the Word of God, then,
the kings became their sole interpreters. The example of the newly found the
Deuteronomy, which was considered to be lost, shows that the power to
acknowledge this book as a Word of God did not belong either priests or
prophets, but only the kings. Therefore, this book was acknowledged and approved
by the king Josiah.
"Then the king called together all the elders of Judah and
Jerusalem. He went up to the temple of the LORD with the men of Judah, the
people of Jerusalem, the priests and the prophets – all the people from the
least to the greatest. He read in their hearing all the words of the Book of the
Covenant, which had been found in the temple of the LORD. The king stood by the
pillar and renewed the covenant in the presence of the LORD – to follow the LORD
and keep his commands, regulations and decrees with all his heart and all his
soul, thus confirming the words of the covenant written in this book. Then all
the people pledged themselves to the covenant.
The king ordered Hilkiah the high priest, the priests next in rank and the
doorkeepers to remove from the temple of the LORD all the articles made for Baal
and Ashrah and all the starry hosts. He burned them outside Jerusalem…He took
the Asherah pole from the temple of the LORD to the Kidron Valley outside
Jerusalem and burned it there. He ground it to powder and scattered the dust
over the graves of the common people. He also tore down the quarters of the male
shrine prostitutes, which were in the temple of the LORD and where women did
weaving for Asherah. Josiah brought all the priests from the towns of Judah and
desecrated the high places, from Geba to Beersheba, where the priests had burned
incense. He broke down the shrines at the gates – at the entrance to the Gate of
Joshua, the city governor…. He removed from the entrance to the temple of the
LORD the horses that the kings of Judah had dedicated to the sun…. He pulled
down the altars the kings of Judah had erected…. Even the altar at Bethel, the
high place made by Jeroboam son of Nebat, who had caused Israel to sin – even
that altar and high place he demolished. He burned the high place and ground it
to powder, and burned the Asherah pole also. Then Josiah looked around, and when
he saw the tombs that were there on the hillside, he had the bones removed from
them and burned on the altar to defile it, in accordance with the word of the
LORD proclaimed by the man of God who foretold these things.
The king asked, ‘What is that tombstone I see?’ The men of the city said, ‘It
marks the tomb of the man of God who came from Judah and pronounced against the
altar of Bethel the very things you have done to it.’ ‘Leave it alone,’ he said.
‘Don’t let anyone to disturb his bones.’ So they spared his bones and those of
the prophet who had come from Samaria.
Just as he had done at Bethel, Josiah removed and defiled all the shrines at the
high places that the kings of Israel had built in the towns of Samaria that had
provoked the LORD to anger. Josiah slaughtered all the priests of those high
places on the altars and burned human bones on them. Then he went back to
Jerusalem. (2Kings 23:1-20).
So, the Medieval Christians, the modern Nazis and Communists were not the
inventors of the nasty custom to burn the books of their opponents and sometimes
the opponents themselves.
Each time, when the upper classes of the Israelites and Judas were loosing their
sovereignty (first, to the Assyrians, then, to the Babylonians, and then again,
to the Persians, and so forth), the Jewish ideologists had been considering the
prophets only as the subconscious heralds of God. Hence, the conscious civil and
clerical bureaucrats (who collaborated with the newly established military
bureaucrats) should interpret their messages. On the other hand, when the
Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Macedonian, Roman, etc., empires were declining
and the central military bureaucrats of those empires were loosing their
authority to the local civil and clerical bureaucrats, then, the Jewish
ideologists were considering the prophets and mob-rulers as the conscious
law-givers. Hence, the admonitions and instructions of the prophets in the name
of God should be taken seriously and without interpretations.
The middle and lower classes of the Jews, from the times of Abraham, should obey
and follow their own lords (bureaucrats) – Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses,
Eleazar, Saul, David, Solomon, etc. They should obey in all matters, except
those orders that contained the direct insult to God. Such insults could be –
first, the negation of God as the natural overlord of the Jews (that means
the negation of the necessity of the social order, in general). And second,
the idolatry or cultivation of an alien god, even if the god was one, but had
the different name from that that the Jewish ideologists prescribed to their
god. In all other matters, the middle and lower classes of the Jews should
submit themselves to their clerical and civil bureaucrats, who, in their turn,
could submit themselves to the military bureaucrats, even if the latter were the
aliens. For instance, if any bureaucrat would order a Jew to kill elders, women,
and children (which is clearly contradicts to the Word of God), then, it would
be the fault of that bureaucrat who gave such an order. It would not be the
fault of the submissive subordinates who executed the order and whose duty was
to execute orders, not to discuss them. Therefore, we can see in the Pentateuch
such apparent contradictions, as – ‘do not kill, do not steal, etc.;’ and, at
the same time:
"The LORD said to me, ‘See, I have begun to deliver Sihon and his
country over to you. Now begin to conquer and possess his land.’
When Sihon and all his army came out to meet us in battle at Jahaz, the LORD our
God delivered him over to us and we struck him down, together with his sons and
his whole army. At that time we took all his towns and completely destroyed them
– men, women and children. We left no survivors. But the livestock and the
plunder from the towns we had captured we carried off for ourselves." (Dt.
2:31-35)
However, for the nomads, who were trying to settle down and to become an
agricultural nation "to kill" aliens and "to steal" their land and possessions
were not the same as "to kill" a fellow-Jew or "to steal" his possessions. And
if you hear nowadays as a Big Brother tells you that, "‘Freedom’ is ‘Slavery’"
or "the essence of the problem depends on what ‘is’ is," then you know where it
came from, and most important, why the Hollywood and lawyers will always defend
this kind of propaganda. Raphael Lemkin, who coined the term ‘genocide’
in his book Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, defined it as a specific class
of mass murder. He cited cases of genocide that occurred as far back as the
Roman destruction of Carthage, when a city-state was physically destroyed and
its entire population either put to the sword or sent into slavery. The Jew
always sees a straw in the eye of others, but never see a log in his own.
The ambivalence was happening with the Hebrews because the possession of the
livestock still prevailed over the possession of the land in the system of their
external values, which are largely responsible for the survival of a subspecies
(ethnic group). In this period of their development, the Hebrews were still
setting on fire the captured cities while living themselves in tents.
"So the LORD our God also gave into our hands Og king of Bashan
and all his army. We struck them down, leaving no survivors. ‘At that time we
took all his cities. There was not one of the sixty cities that we did not take
from them – the whole region of Argob... All these cities were fortified with
high walls and with gates and bars, and there were also a great many unwalled
villages. We completely destroyed them, as we had done with Sihon king of
Heshbon, destroying every city – men, women and children. But all the livestock
and the plunder from their cities we carried off for ourselves.’" (Dt. 3:3-7).
In the following conquest of the east bank of the Jordan River, it appears that
the Hebrews had been gradually changing their attitude toward the livestock as
the main property. They ceased to destroy the captured cities, but their
inhabitants continued to be massacred. The land had become the main property and
its distribution became the main function of the leader of the new nation. The
Jewish ideologists thus described Moses’ dispensation of the "captured" (read –
stolen) land:
"Of the land that we took over at that time, I gave the
Reubenites and the Gadites the territory north of Aroer by the Arnon Gorge,
including half the hill country of Gilead, together with its towns. The rest of
Gilead and also all of Bashan, the kingdom of Og, I gave to the half tribe of
Manasseh…. Jair, a descendant of Manasseh, took the whole region of Argob as far
as the border of the Geshurites and the Maacathites; it was named after him, so
that to this day Bashan is called Havvoth Jair. And I gave Gilead to Makir. But
the Reubenites and the Gadites I gave the territory extending from Gilead down
to the Arnon Gorge…and out to the Jabbok River, which is the border of the
Ammonites. Its western border was the Jordan in the Arabah, from Kinnereth to
the Sea of the Arabah (the Salt Sea), below the slopes of Pisgah.
I command you at that time: ‘The LORD your God has given you this land to take
possession of it. [Therefore, they always "take into possession"; but if
somebody takes something into possession from them, then, it will be "stealing".
VS] But all your able-bodied men, armed for battle, must cross over ahead of
your brother Israelites. However, your wives, your children and your
livestock…may stay in the towns I have given you, until the LORD gives rest to
your brothers as he has to you, and they too have taken over the land that the
LORD your God is given them, across the Jordan. After that, each of you may go
back to the possession I have given you.’" (Dt. 3:12-20).
Here, Moses openly speaks that it is he (by his own power that is the synergy of
those will-to-take powers that each Jew transfer to him at the Mount of Sinai),
who gives the Jews those cities with their lands. He does so that they could
become the upper class of the Hebrew nation and could not care about their
guilty conscious because he (Moses) takes onto his own shoulders all their sins.
Wasn’t that Hitler’s speech? – it was so long ago that my memory refuses to
serve me well. ‘God is with us, but we, with swords in our hands, must "take"
the land into our possession’ – this creed of the ancient Jewish ideologists was
not denounced by the contemporary Jewish ideologists. Therefore, the Islamic
ideologists will continue to consider the Jews as the potential international
terrorists and the Israelites as able to commit more genocide toward the Arabs,
because:
"Every place where you set your foot will be yours: from the
desert to Lebanon, and from the Euphrates River to the western sea. No man will
be able to stand against you. The LORD your God, as he promised you, will put
the terror and fear of you on the whole land, wherever you go." (Dt. 11:24-25).
That is very inspiring political program for the Jews and very frightening one
for the adherents of Islam. We should acknowledge that the further development
of the Hebrews’ interests led the Jewish ideologists to realization that the
land by itself will not give them the comfort of life. There should be some
lower class people (you may call them ‘serfs,’ ‘slaves,’ ‘Palestinians,’ or
whatever) to take care about it. Realizing that, the Jewish ideologists
instructed their soldiers not to destroy all the "captured" cities and not to
"destroy" all their inhabitants.
"When you march up to attack a city, make its people an offer of
peace. If they accept and open their gates, all the people in it shall be
subject to forced labor and shall work for you. If they refuse to make peace and
they engage you in battle [It is not you come to plunder their city, but they
come to plunder own city, therefore, it is "they engage you in battle." It is
always useful to pinpoint a scapegoat that our minds would be righteous, thus
making our wrath ruthless. VS], lay siege to that city. When the LORD your God
delivers it into your hand, put to the sword all the men in it. As for the
women, the children, the livestock and everything else in the city, you may take
these as plunder for yourselves. And you may use the plunder the LORD your God
gives you from your enemies. This is how you are to treat all the cities that
are at a distance from you and do not belong to the nations nearby.
However, in the cities of the nations the LORD your God is giving you as an
inheritance, do not leave alive anything that breathes. Completely destroy them
– the Hittites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites – as the
LORD your God has commanded you. Otherwise, they will teach you to follow all
the detestable things they do in worshipping their gods, and you will sin
against the LORD your God." (Dt. 20:10-18).
Through all the rest of the Deuteronomy, the Jewish ideologists admonished the
Jews to submit themselves to their commands and laws. They instigated the people
(as Alic Boldwin) to "put" to death those who "entice" to idolatry (read –
‘dissidents’ who disagree with the upper class ideologists). They enticed the
people do not eat something that were "impure" (that is how the people could
easily discern such ‘dissidents’). They admonished each other to "release" a
fellow Hebrew, who was sold to them into slavery for debt after his/her
seven-year-hard labor, but it does not relate to a slave-alien.
Thus, we can say that the Word of God, in essence, contains the responsibilities
of the middle and lower classes of the Jews to their upper class. The latter has
its responsibilities only to God; and if it is not enough for you, then, you are
a dissident and must be "put" to death, because a Jew shall not "kill".
Therefore, it can be positively concluded that the Jewish Bible and Old
Testament are the highly efficient ideological instruments of the upper classes,
which has been applying these instruments to brainwash the middle and lower
classes of the respective nations.
But what about the New Testament (Gospels)? To understand the meaning of the New
Testament, we should look closer at the history of the Roman Empire.
This page was created with the MS Front Page by Victor J. Serge and revised on 04/13/03